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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



ELEMENTS 



COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR 



GORDON A,- y SOUTH WORTH 

Master of the Prescott School, Somerville, Massachusetts 

F: Br^GODDARD, Ph.D. (Hary.) 

7 ■ 




LEACH, SHEWELL, & SANBORN 

BOSTON AND NEW YORK 






Copyright, 18S9, 
G. A. SOUTHWORTH and F. B. GODDARD. 



TYPOGRAIHIY BY J. S. ClTSHING & Co., P.OPTON. 



Press-work :iy Berwk k & smith. Boston. 



PEE FACE. 



As its title implies, the design of this book is twofold: (1) to 
provide for children such training in the ready use of good English, 
as they can never get by the study of grammar alone ; and (2) to teach 
them the essential facts regarding the structure of sentences, and the 
kinds, forms, and uses of words. In recognition of the importance of 
this training, material for it has been given in abundance and variety 
in the first nine chapters, while in the rest of the book the grammar 
of the language is so presented as to be thoroughly intelligible to 
children. 

Though both composition and grammar contribute in greater or less 
degree to the same end, the ability to use language intelligently and 
with facility, yet they differ essentially in their character and method of 
treatment. For this reason as well as to secure a logical and orderly 
presentation of subjects, in the arrangement of the book no attempt 
has been made to intermingle exercises in composition with work hi 
grammar. Indeed, such is the diversity of opinion as to when chil- 
dren should begin the study of grammar, and such the consequent 
difference in their previous training and practice in the use of lan- 
guage, that composition-work selected for one class of beginners might 
be wholly inappropriate for another. It has been thought best, there- 
fore, to leave the teacher, who alone can judge correctly, to make selec- 
tions in kind and quantity suited to the varying age, attainments, and 
needs of different classes. 

Beginning with the sentence at Chapter X. the essentials of gram- 
matical form and structure are simply and clearly presented. Abrupt 
transitions are avoided, and with a view to educating the reason as 
well as the understanding, an effort has been made to have each part 
naturally and logically connected with what precedes and what follows 
it. Each subject, moreover, is fully explained and illustrated, often 



by inductive exercises , so that thoughtful study of the sections in 
large type and of the illustrative examples will enable the learner 
without much further help to apprehend the most important principles. 
and to apply them intelligently in the practical exercises which make 
up much of the body of the book. 

Xo chapter is entitled Syntax ; but the construction of sentences is 
developed from the beginning as fast and as fully as practical 
that a child's acquaintance with verbs, for instance, is by no means 
deferred until he reaches the chapter so headed. Without intention- 
ally omitting any essential principle, much that has been engrafted 
upon English grammar from other languages is left out as false or 
burdensome. The invariable basis of classification for the parts of 
speech is use, and for inflection it is form. Cases, for example, are 
always treated as forms, of which the noun has two, and a few pro- 
nouns three, the many constructions of these parts of speech being con- 
sidered separately. In the direction of simplicity verb-phrases are 
distinguished from simple verbs. 

For presenting the analysis of sentences to the eye, a new and simple 
method is followed. Its value has been thoroughly tested both in illus- 
trative blackboard work and in the preparation of lessons by cl 
It is easily applied to all ordinary sentences without re-writing them, 
or writing them in an extended form. For long or involved sentences 
other methods are substituted. 

The infinitive and the participle receive fuller treatment than is 
customary, because, being as common and as important as other 
elements of the sentence, they ought to be equally well understood ; 
and their construction has been developed with a view to making 
even children see that it is generally the same as that of nouns and 
adjectives. 

Very little is said of idioms or of elliptical expressions. Such of 
them as are not too difficult for any but well-advanced students, can 
be readily explained by one who is familiar with the regular con- 
struction . 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTEK PAGE 

I. Language and Grammar 1 

II. Capitals, Punctuation, etc 3 

III. Copying and Dictation ...... 10 

IV. Reproduction of Stories ...... 12 

V. Letter-writing ....... 15 

VI. Narrative-writing ....... 37 

VII. Descriptive Writing ...... 45 

VIII. Choice of AVords 60 

IX. Paraphrasing 72 

X. The Sentence: Kinds 77 

XL Subject and Predicate ...... 83 

XIL Kinds of Words 91 

XIII. Sentence-building ....... 126 

XIV. Sentence-axalysis ....... 150 

XV. Nouns 156 

XVI. Pronouns 183 

XVII. Adjectives . . . . 20S 

XVIII. Verbs 219 

XIX. Adverbs 263 

XX. Prepositions ........ 270 

XXI. Conjunctions ........ 271 

XXII. Interjections ........ 281 

XXIII. Infinitives and Participles ..... 283 

XXIV. Phrases, Clauses, and Combined Sentences . . 292 



Index 



1-1V 



TO TEACHERS. 



This book is designed for children who are old enough 
to learn the elements of grammar and who have had some 
elementary training in the use of language. After taking 
up the first three or four chapters by way of review, they 
may profitably begin to study the sentence and its ele- 
ments ; that is to say, Chapters X. and following. 

Practice in oral and written composition must, however, 
be continued throughout the entire school course, and for 
this purpose the first seventy-five pages furnish ample in- 
struction and material. These pages are by no means to 
be used consecutively, but selections from them adapted 
to the varying needs of learners, are to be made in such 
a way that exercise in the use of language may constantly 
accompany the study of its structure. 

[Teachers will find valuable suggestions as to methods, etc. ; addi- 
tional exercises ; and a fuller treatment of certain subjects in •• Our 
Language," a larger work by the same authors, to which reference 
will be frequently made in the following pages.] 



CHAPTER I. 

LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 1 

1. Ever since we began to talk we have been learning 
the use of language : that is, we have been learning how 
to make other persons know what we want and what we 
think and how we feel, by speaking* to them in \vords 
which they will hear and understand. 

As we grew older we learned to express our thoughts 
and feelings by writing- our words for others to see and 
read ; and in this way, if we were all deaf and dumb, we 
should still be able to use our language. 

2. The letters used in writing a word merely stand for 
the sounds we make in speaking it, so that it is really the 
same language we use in these two ways, and the words 
are the same. 

3. The Study of Language is the study of words and of the 
proper use of them iu expressing what we have to say. 

4. In our language, — the English, spoken first only 
in England, but now used in many other parts of the 
world, — there are thousands and thousands of words, 
each with a different meaning. It is by our study of 
language that we are to become familiar with the pro- 
nunciation, the spelling, and the meaning of these words, 
and to acquire readiness in using them to express our 
thoughts. 

1 To the Teacher. See Our Language, pp. 1-6. 



2 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

(a) By this study, too, we shall learn to choose right 
forms of appropriate words and to put them together 
properly in our sentences. This knowledge will enable 
us to correct the wrong habits of speaking and writing 
into which ignorance or carelessness or the imitation of 
bad examples may have led us. 

5. The surest way to become skilful in the use of 
language is by constant practice in correct speaking and 
writing. We should read books that are written in the 
best English, and Ave should study and imitate the best 
writers and speakers in our choice of words and in our 
way of putting them together, so that we may use our 
language easily, as a good workman uses his tools, and so 
that we may be able to correct our own errors. 

6. Besides doing all this, it will be well to understand 
a little more about words, and to learn some of the rides 
for using them. For, although we do not think about 
rules when we are speaking, they will make it easier for 
us to study examples of good English, and to form correct 
habits ourselves. It is pleasant, too, to feel that we know 
about our language, and that we can reason about our 
forms of expression. 

While studying language, then, we ought also to learn 
how some of our words have been made from others ; how 
they are all divided into classes ; how their forms are 
changed ; and how they are put together in sentences. 
This includes what is called English grammar. 

7. Grammar shows how words are made, how their forms are 
changed, and how they arc put together in sentences according to 
their kinds. 



CHAPTER II. 

CAPITALS, PUNCTUATION, ETC. 

8. When speaking-, we ought to vary our tones and 
the length of our pauses, so as to make our sentences as 
expressive as possible. So in writing-, we should always 
make our meaning as clear as we can, by using capital 
letters in the proper places, and by dividing our sen- 
tences with marks of punctuation. 



I. RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS, ETC. 

9. A Capital Letter should be used to begin — 

1. Every sentence. 

2. Every line of poetry. 

3. Every direct quotation. [See p. 7.] 

4. All individual or special names of persons, places, 
months, and days ; as, — 

William Shakespeare, Spain, September, Saturday. 

(<x) All words made from them ; as, — 

Shakespearean; Spanish. 

(5) And all abbreviations of them ; as, — 

TVm., Sept. 

5. All names applied to God. 



CAPITALS, PUNCTUATION, ETC. 

6. The principal words in titles. Thus : — 

The President of the United States. 
" The Land of the Midnight Sun." 

7. The words I and O. 

10. Italics [Italic letters'] are used in printing, for- 

(#) A word that is very emphatic. 

(£) Short titles of books : names of ships ; etc. 

In uniting, we should underline such words or titles. 



II. EULES FOB PUNCTUATION. 
11. The Period [.] must be used after — 

I. Every complete sentence that is not a question nor 

an exclamation. 

II. All abbreviations or initial letters. 

III. A heading, title, or signature, when used alone. 

12. The Question-mark [?] must be used after — 
IY. Eveiy complete question. 

13. The Exelamatioii-poiiit [!] must be used after — 

V. Every expression that is very exclamatory. 

14. The Comma [,] must be used to separate from the 
rest of the sentence — 

VI. The name of the person spoken to. Thus : — 

John, come forward. 

VII. A direct quotation, or each of the parts of one if 
it is divided. [See p. 8.] 

The Comma must also be used to separate — 



RULES FOE PUNCTUATION, 5 

VIII. Words and expressions of the same kind when 
there are not words between to connect them all. Thns : — 

The flags were red, white, and blue. 

IX. The parts of a sentence that is made up of two or 
more sentences. Thus : — 

We have come, and you must go. 

15. The Apostrophe ['] must be used to denote — 

X. Possession. [See §§ 233, 293.] 

XI. The omission of letters in contracted words. 

16. Quotation-marks [" "] must be used to enclose — 

XII. Every direct quotation, or each of the parts into 
which it is divided. [See Rule VII. and §§ 20-24.] 

XIII. The title of a book or periodical, if the title is long. 

17. The Hyphen [-] must be used to separate — 

XIV. The parts of some compound words. 

XV. The syllables of a word written on different lines. 

EXERCISE I. 

Tell why each punctuation-mark is used in these sentences : — 

[The numbers at the end refer to the rules on pages 4 and 5.] 

1. How many days are there in a leap year ? (iv) 

2. Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust? (iv; x) 

3. Boys, have you ever read " Tom Brown at Rugby " ? (vi ; xiii) 

4. Now abideth faith, hope, charity, (viii) 

5. The houses were low, narrow, and dingy, (viii) 

6. Julius Caesar wrote, " I came, I saw, I conquered." (vii ; xii) 

7. "Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn in no 
other." (ix; xii) 

8. Which sounds better, "No, sir, I can't"; or, "Yes, ma'am, I'll 
try"? (vii; vi; xi; xii) 

9. "Little Lord Fauntleroy" was originally published in St. 
Nicholas, (xiii; ii; §10 (&)) 



CAPITALS, PUNCTUATION, ETC. 



EXERCISE 2. 

Write the following as six Hues of poetry. Indent every other line, 
beginning with the second. There should be nine capitals. 

" I would not hurt a living thing, however weak or small ; the 
beasts that graze, the birds that sing, our father made them all; 
without his notice, I have read, a sparrow cannot fall." 

EXERCISE 3. 

Write answers to the following, making complete sentences, and 
applying the rules for punctuation : — 

1. What three manufacturing cities are on the Merrimac? (viii) 

2. What fruits grow within the tropics ? (viii) 

3. What is the title of the last book that you read ? (xiii) 

4. Into what do the St. Lawrence and Mississippi rivers now ? (ix) 

5. Whose dictionary do you use ? (x) 

6. Write the following with three contractions : Do you not think 
he will say it is too much ? (xi) 

7. Name the natural divisions of time, (viii) 

8. What materials are used in building houses? (viii) 

9. Ask your teacher a question, using her name and title 1 , (vi ; iv) 
10. Give the exact date and time of writing this exercise, and add 

your signature, (ii; iii) 

EXERCISE 4. 

1. Answer these questions orally in complete sentences. 

2. Answer them in writing, applying the rules for capitals and 
punctuation. 



1 . What is your full name ? 

2. In what town, county, and state 

were you born ? 

3. What is your birthday? 

4. What is your favorite book? enjoy 

5. What newspaper or magazine, 0. Why are they celebrated ? 

do you read? . 10. Who is governor of the state ? 



6. To what foreign lands would 
you especially like to go ? 

7. What rivers have you seen? 
S. What holidays do vou most 



QUOTATIONS. 7 

III. SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS. 

18. The letters that make a word are written close 
together, but we leave a little space between the words 
that make a sentence. 

Between two sentences we should leave twice as much 
space as between two words. 

19. A Paragraph is a group of sentences more closely 
connected in meaning with one another than with what 
precedes or follows. A single sentence may make a para- 
graph. It should begin on a separate line, and a little 
farther from the margin than the other lines begin. 

EXERCISE 5. 

1. Answer the following questions in sentences, arranging your 
replies in two paragraphs. Where will the second paragraph begin ? 

What is a farmer? What does he do in the spring? In the sum- 
mer ? In the autumn ? What tools does he use ? What does he raise ? 
What kinds of animals does he keep ? Would you like to be a farmer ? 
Give your reason. 

What is a blacksmith? What is the place in which he works 
called? Tell the use of his bellows. His anvil. What other tools 
does he use ? Why is his business a useful one ? 

2. Write two paragraphs comparing the life of a soldier with that 
of a sailor. 



IV. QUOTATIONS. 



20. When we introduce the exact language of another 
person into what we are writing, we make what is called 
a Direct Quotation. Thus : — 

Prince Edward and his division were so hard pressed that a mes- 
sage was sent to the King asking for aid. "Is my son killed?" said 



8 CAPITALS, FLUCTUATION, ETC. 

the King. '* No, sire." "Is be wounded or thrown to the ground?" 
" No, sire," said the messenger ; " but he is very hard pressed." " Then," 
said the King, " I shall send no aid ; because I am resolved that the 
honor of a great victory shall be his." 

21. In writing a direct quotation, we must remember 
three things : — 

(1) To begin it with a capital. 

(2) To enclose it in quotation-marks. 

(3) To separate it from the rest of the sentence by a 
comma, unless it is a question or an exclamation. 

If the quotation consists of several sentences, it may be preceded by a colon [ : ]. 

22. When we introduce anything into our writing as 
a thought or an opinion of another without using his exact 
language, Ave make an Indirect Quotation. Thus : — 

Direct. The King said, "I have lost the hearts of my people. 1 ' 
Indirect. The King said that he had lost the hearts of his people. 

Indirect Quotations frequently begin with the word 
"that," and they require no quotation-marks. 

EXERCISE 6. 

Change the direct quotations on page 10 into indirect. 

23. A Divided Quotation is one which is given in two 
parts, with some of the writer's own wo.rds between. 

Each part should be enclosed in quotation-marks, and 
generally separated from the rest by commas. Thus : — 

"I propose to fight it out on this line," wrote General Grant, "if it 
takes all summer." 

24. In writing a conversation between two persons, 



MARKS USED IN CORRECTING. tf 

what each one says should generally occupy a separate 
paragraph. Thus : — 

" Colonel Miller," asked General Brown, " can you silence that 
battery ? " 

" I'll try, sir," replied the gallant colonel. 

EXERCISE 7. 

Write a short conversation — 

(1) Between two children about their favorite amusement. 

(2) Between a merchant and one of his customers. 

(3) Between a boy and a sailor. 



MARKS USED IN CORRECTING WRITTEN WORK. 

25. [The use of the following marks to indicate errors in written work may 
be illustrated on the blackboard. All but the caret should be repeated in the 
margin so as to attract attention. Where there is more than one mark, a line 
(/) may be used to separate them.] 

c under either a small letter or a capital. The other form 

should be used. 
X a cross between two words. Begin a new sentence. 
/ this line drawn through a letter or mark means that it 

is wrong. 
8 the de-le in the margin. Omit what is marked. 
A the ca-ret. Something is wanting, — a letter, a word, or 

a mark, which may be written in the margin. 
O a circle around a mark in the margin. Use this mark. 
[ ] brackets enclosing words. These words should be omitted 
in copying. 
^1 or No If these signs mean begin or do not begin a new paragraph. 
s under a word. The spelling is wrong. 
ww these letters under a word. A wrong word has been used. 
gr these letters in the margin. An error in grammar. 
? ? these marks in the margin. Inquire about this. 



CHAPTER III. 

COPYING AND DICTATION.* 

EXERCISE 8. 

Copy one or niore of the following selections or write 
from the dictation of your teacher, using- capitals and 
punctuation marks correctly. 

1. Capt. Nathan Hale was hanged as a spy during the Revolution. 
His last words were, " I only regret that I have but one life to give 
for my country." 

2. Dr. Doddridge one day asked his little girl how it was that 
everybody loved her. " I do not know," she said, " unless it is that I 
love everybody." 

3. " At Frankfort," said little Simson, " I once saw a watch that 
did not believe in the existence of a watch-maker. It had a very poor 
movement, by the way, and a pinchbeck case." H. Heine. 

4. So nigh is grandeur to our dust, 

So near is God to man, 
"When duty whispers low, " Thou must," 

The youth replies, " I can." Emerson. 

5. " Some people," says Alphonse Karr, " are always finding fault 
with Nature for putting thorns on roses. I always thank her for 
putting roses on thorns." 

6. Queen Elizabeth, daughter of King Henry VI 11. , was born in 
1533. She was five-and-twenty years of age when, Nov. 17, 1588, she 
rode through the streets of London, from the Tower to Westminster 
Abbey, to be crowned. She died at Richmond, March 24, 1603. 

7. " How dismal you look ! " said a Bucket to his companion, as 
they w r ere going to the well. 

1 To the Teacher. See Our Language, pp. 7, 20. 



EXEBCTSES FOR DICTATION. 11 

" Ah ! " replied the other, " I was reflecting on the uselessness of 
our being filled, for, let us go away never so full, we always come 
back empty." 

" Dear me ! how strange to look at it in that way ! " said the 
Bucket. " Now, I enjoy the thought, that, however empty w T e come, 
we always go away full." 

8. " Over and over again, 
No matter which way I turn, 

I always find in the book of life 

Some lesson I have to learn. 
I must take my turn at the mill ; 

I must grind out the golden grain ; 
I must work at my task with a resolute will, 
Over and over again." 

9. William H. Prescott, John L. Motley, and George Bancroft are 
distinguished American historians. Prescott wrote " The Conquest 
of Mexico." Motley wrote " The Rise of the Dutch Republic." 
Bancroft wrote the " History of the United States." 

10. " Know old Cambridge? Hope you do. 

Born there ? Don't say so ! I was too : 
Born in a house with a gambrel roof, — 
Standing still, if you must have proof." 

" Yes, in the old gambrel-roofed house looking out on the College 
Green, lived Rev. Dr. Abiel Holmes, — pastor of the First Church in 
Cambridge, Massachusetts, but of wider fame as the author of the 
American Annals, — and there was born to him the son, Oliver Wen- 
dell, who was to shed new lustre on the family name as the brightest 
of American poets and essayists. His birth-date is August 29, 1809." 

11. " Henry Wads worth Longfellow, the most popular of Ameri- 
can poets, was born in Portland, Maine, Feb. 27, 1807. His father 
was a well-known jurist, and, like Bryant, he was descended from 
John Alden, the youngest of the Mayflower's Pilgrims. 

" From 1835, the time of his appointment as Professor of Modern 
Languages and Literature in Harvard University, till his death, 
March 21, 1882, Longfellow lived in the stately old Cambridge man- 
sion occupied by Washington during the siege of Boston, 1775-76." 



CHAPTER IV. 

REPRODUCTION OF STORIES. 1 

EXERCISE 9. 

Read and then reproduce from the outline the story of — 

THE OYSTER AND ITS CLAIMANTS. 

Two travellers discovered on the beach 

An oyster, carried thither by the sea. 
'Twas eyed with equal greediness by each ; 

Then came the question whose was it to be. 
One, stooping down to pounce upon the prize, 

Was thrust away before his hand could snatch it. 
" Not quite so quickly," his companion cries ; 

" If you've a claim here, Pre a claim to match it ; 
The first that saw it has the better right 

To its possession; come, you can't deny it." 
" Well," said his friend, " my orbs are pretty bright, 

And /, upon my life, was first to spy it " 
"You? Not at all; or, if you did perceive it, 

I smelt it long before it was in view : 
But here's a lawyer coining — let us leave it 

To him to arbitrate between the two." 
The lawyer listens with a stolid face, 

Arrives at his decision in a minute ; 
And, as the shortest way to end the case, 

Opens the shell and eats the fish within it. 
The rivals look upon him with dismay : — 

" This Court," says he, " awards you each a shell ; 
You've neither of you any costs to pay, 

And so be happy, Go in peace. Farewell ! ' 



La Fontaine. 



1 To the Teacher. See Our Language, pp. 23-31. 



EEPEODXTCTION OF STORIES. 18 



OUTLINE. 

1. The discovery. 4. The lawyer and his fee. 

2. The rival claims. 5. The verdict rendered. 

3. The dispute. 6. The lesson taught. 

EXERCISE 10. 
Reproduce from the outline, after hearing or reading the story of 
The African Chief. W. C. Bryant. 

OUTLINE. 

Introduction. Description of Captive. Appearance. History. 

r Request for freedom. Offers ornaments. 
Details The refusal and intention of captors. 
of -l Disclosure of gold concealed in hair. 
Story. Request renewed, and reasons given. 

_ Again denied, but gold taken. 

Conclusion. Effect on the Chieftain. 

EXERCISE II. 

After hearing it read, write from the outline the story of 

The White-footed Deer. W. C. Bryant. 

1. The time and place. 2. Appearance of deer and her habits. 

3. The protection of the cottage dame. 4. Tradition of the Indians. 
5. The hunter's success. 6. His fatal shot. 7. The red-men's re- 
venge. 8. Desolation. 

EXERCISE 12. 

After reading it, write from this outline the story of 

Paul Revere's Ride. Longfellow. 

1. The time. 2. The signal light. 3. The object of the ride. 

4. The listening friends discover the movements of the British. 

5. The impatient watching of Revere. 6. The signal at last! He 
mounts and is off ! 7. The ride to Medford. 8. Lexington village : 
its appearance. 9. The ride ended. 10. The result. 



14 REPRODUCTION OF STORIES. 

EXERCISE 13. 

Study the poem carefully, and then write the story from the out- 
line. Make several direct quotations. 

Nauhatjght, the Deacon. Whittier. 

I. Nauhaught and his circumstances. 2. His dream. 3. He visits 
his traps. 4. His success. 5. Thoughts of home and of his needs. 
6. His prayer. 7. He finds the purse. 8. The conflict with tempta- 
tion. 9. Reasons for keeping the money; for not keeping it. 
10. The noble resolve. 11. He visits the inn and finds the owner. 
12. The reward. 13. His feelings as he goes home. 14. The angel. 

EXERCISE 14. 
Prepare an outline and reproduce the story from it. 

1. Bruce and the Spider. B. Barton. 1 

2. Small Beginnings. C. Mackay. 1 

3. The Milkmaid.' J. Taylor. 1 

4. The Mountain and the Squirrel. R. W. Emerson. 

5. The Nantucket Skipper. J. T. Fields. 

6. God's Judgment on the Wicked ) D 4l 

Bishop. ) J 

7. Incident of the French Camp. R. Browning. 

8. Arnold Winkelried. Montgomery. 

9. The Sandpiper. Celia Thaxter. 

10. The Little Match Girl. Ham Christian Andersen. 

II. Abou Ben Adhem. Leigh Hunt. 

12. Horatius at the Bridge. Macatday. 

13. Skipper Ireson's Ride. J. G. Whittier. 

14. The Story of Ruth. Bible. 

15. The Legend of Bregenz. A. A. Proctor. 

EXERCISE 15. 

Try to invent and write an original story ; give it a name, and 
sign yourself as the author. 

1 Bryant's Library of Poetry and Song. 



CHAPTER V. 

LETTER -WRITING. 1 

26. The most general use of written language is for 
Letters, which we send addressed to absent persons to 
whom we have something to say. 

27. Kinds. Letters may, of course, be written upon 
any subject. They may serve in transacting business; 
they may give or ask for information or advice ; or they 
may take the place of ordinary conversation between 
friends and acquaintances. Sometimes they are formal; 
sometimes familiar. 

28. Form. By custom a formal letter is made to con- 
sist of six parts : — 

1. The Heading, 4. The Body of the Letter, 

2. The Address, 5. The Complimentary Ending, 

3. The Salutation, 6. The Writer's Signature. 



I. THE HEADING. 



29. The Heading of a letter should give the place and 
date of writing. If a reply is to be sent to the place of 
writing, the letter should show exactly where to send it 
by mail. 

1 To the Teacher. See Our Language, p. 32. 



16 LETTER-WRITING. 

30. If a reply is to be sent elsewhere than to the place of writing, 
the fact should be indicated after the signature. (Form 14.) 

1. Place. 

31. If in a city or in any other place where they need to be 
known, give first the name or number of the house and the name 
of the street (or else the post-office box). Thus: Turner's Inn. 
Green St. ; or 25 Park Sq. (Forms, pp. 25-30.) 

32. Always give the name of the city, town, or post-office 

where letters are received. 

Often there are several post-offices in one township. 

33. When it would be of any use to tell the county, give that 
next. It sometimes happens that in one state there are several towns 
with similar names, so that the name of the county is needed to dis- 
tinguish them; and if a town is small and little known, it may hasten 
the delivery of the reply to add the county. 

34. Xext comes the name of the state, unless you are sure that it 
is not needed. 

2. Time. 

35. In familiar letters, and whenever it needs to be known, give 
first the day of the week. (Forms 4 and 7.) In other letters, give 
only the month, the day of the month, and the year. Do not 
give the hour unless there is good reason for adding it. (Form 12.) 

36. Sometimes it seems as if nothing need be given but the hour of the day, but 
if a letter is kept for any length of time, it is always convenient to be able to tell when 
and where it was written. 

3. Position of Heading. 

37. The heading may occupy one, two, or three lines according to 
the space it requires. It begins an inch or more from the to]), and 
about half way across the page toward the right. Eacli of the fol- 
lowing lines, if one is not enough, should begin a little farther to the 
right. Always put the whole of the date on one line. 

4. Heading Omitted. 

38. Except in business letters, the heading is often omitted, and 
the place and time are given at the left of the page after the signature. 
(§ 64, and Forms 12 and 22.) 



THE ADDRESS. 17 

5. Punctuation. 
39. Put commas after every part, except between the name and 
the day of the month, and between the name and the number of the 
street or post-office box. Put a period after abbreviations, and at the 
end of the whole. 

EXERCISE 16. 

1. Make perfect copies of the headings given on pages 25-30, 
in their proper position. 

2. Write the following as headings properly arranged. 

1. Oct. 25, 1891, Saratoga, State of New York, 217 Spring St. 

2. I am in Andover, in Oxford Co., in Maine, at the Eagle Hotel, 
July 21, 1890. 

3. At Home on Washington's Birthday, 1894, Thursday. 

4. In the city of New York, Sept. 25, 1892, at the Murray Hill 
House, Saturday. 

5. With a friend who lives at No. 294 in Duquesne St. in the city 
of Pittsburg, state of Pennsylvania, to-day. 

6. In Worcester, Massachusetts, at the Polytechnic Institute, April 
26, 1894. 

7. Atlanta; 1892; Georgia; (P. O. Box 725 ;) May 17. 

8. Tennessee ; Knox Co. ; 1893 ; Fair Garden ; 29th of November. 

9. San Francisco; Aug. 16; Pacific Ave.; No. 216; 1891; Cali- 
fornia, Sunday. [Give the time as heading ; the place, at the end.] 



II. THE ADDEESS- 

40. The Address of a letter consists of the name and 
title of the person or firm to whom it is written. Some- 
times, especially in business letters, the residence or place 
of business is added. 

41. The address is necessary in business letters where either the 
letter or the address is to be copied before mailing, and in any letter it 
may serve for reference (Forms 8, 21, 27) ; but to give it separately, in 
a familiar letter, seems useless and too formal. 



18 LETTER-WRITING. 

1. Name and Title. 

42. To the name of the person addressed it is polite to add an 
appropriate title. 

(a) Before the name we may write : — 
Mr. in addressing a man. 

Mrs. [Mistress] in addressing a married woman. 

Messrs. [Messieurs] in addressing two or more men. 

Miss (pi. Misses) in addressing an unmarried woman or a girl. 

Master (pi. Masters) in addressing a boy. 

Rev. or The Rev. before the full name or some other title in 

addressing a clergyman ; as, The Rev. C. F. Howe ; Rev. 

Mr. Howe ; The Rev. Dr. Howe ; not Rev. Howe. 
Hon. in addressing members of Congress, and a few other high 

officials. 
Dr. in addressing a physician, or any person who has one of 

the titles M.D., Ph.D., D.D., LL.D., etc. 

(b) After the name we may write : — 

Esq. in addressing lawyers, many government officers, and 
sometimes other gentlemen. 

(c) There are many other titles, such as Gen., Col., Supt., Jr., 
which may be used in addressing the persons to whom they rightfully 
belong. 

(d) Sometimes two or more different titles are used together ; as, 
Prof. Wm. Hale, M.D., LL.D. ; but if both have the same meaning, as 
Dr. and M.D., they cannot be used together. With Esq., no other 
title should be used ; and we cannot say Mr. Dr. Brown. 

2. Residence. 

43. By residence is meant the name of the post-office and state ; 
sometimes also the street and number where a person receives letters. 
(Forms, pp. 26, 27.) 

3. Arrangement and Position. 

44. The address may, like the heading, occupy one, two, or three 
lines. The first line should contain nothing but the name and title, 
and should not be indented from the left margin. Each of the fol- 



THE SALUTATION. 19 

lowing lines should be written a little further to the right than the 
one before it. 

45. In business letters the address should be given on the line below 
the heading. In familiar letters, if given in full, it should begin on 
the line below the signature. In other letters it may be written at 
the end instead of at the top, especially when the heading is very long. 
(Form 17.) 

46. Put commas after the parts of the address, but put a period 
at the end. 



III. THE SALUTATION. 

47. The Salutation is a courteous or affectionate greet- 
ing that serves to introduce the body of the letter. 

1. Form. 

48. Its form depends upon who is writing, who is addressed, and 
what degree of intimacy or friendship there is between the two. 
Hence there are many forms from which to choose, and only a few 
can be given here. Where several forms are given in succession, the 
first are the most formal, the last are the most familiar. 

49. In business or formal letters of any sort we write : — Sir (pi., 
Sirs or Gentlemen) ; Dear Sir or Sirs ; My dear Sir. Madam (pi., 
Ladies) ; Dear Madam ; My dear Madam. 

A young unmarried woman is addressed simply as (for example) 
Miss Brown, or Dear Miss Brown. (Forms, pp. 25-30.) 

50. In more familiar letters, -we may use one of the preceding 
forms, or such as these: — Friend Brown; My dear Friend; Cousin 
Clara ; Dear Brown ; My dear Ned ; My dear Mother ; Dear Papa. 
(Forms, pp. 25-30.) 

(a) The salutation is sometimes made part of the body of the letter 
(Form 13), and is sometimes omitted in formal notes. (Ex. 20, 
No. 20.) 

2. Position. 

51 « If the address consists of three lines, the salutation may be 
indented as much as the second line. (Forms 21, 27.) If it con- 



20 LETTER-WRITING. 

sists of one or two lines, the salutation should be written a little to 
the right. (Forms 8, 19.) 

If the address is omitted here, the salutation should begin at the 
left margin of the line below the heading. 

3. Punctuation. 

52. After the salutation, use a comma, a colon, a comma and a 
dash, or a colon and a dash, according to the degree of formality with 
which the letter begins. The comma is the least formal. 



EXERCISE 17. 

1. Study carefully the position, capitals, and punctuation of the 
introductions in the models on pages 25-30, and then make perfect 
copies of them. 

2. Write the various addresses and salutations that you might 
use — 

1. In writing to your father ; your brother or sister ; your uncle ; 
your grandmother ; your cousin. 

2. In writing to an intimate friend; to your teacher; to a physi- 
cian ; to a neighbor. 

3. In writing to a clergyman who is a stranger to you; to the 
chairman of your school committee ; to the superintendent of schools. 

4. In writing to a lawyer living in your town ; to the member of 
Congress from your district ; to some firm doing business near you. 

5. In writing to a firm doing business at 723 Broadway, New York 
City, and named A. C. Armstrong & Co. ; to the publishers of this 
book ; to the publishers of the geography or of the reading-book that 
you use. 



IV. THE BODY OF A LETTER. 

53. The Body of a letter is the message itself, or what 
we have to say. 

54. Contents, (a) Do not make such needless remarks as "I 
now take my pen in hand," or "I will now close," but begin with 



THE COMPLIMENTARY ENDING. 21 

something worth saying; express yourself clearly and concisely in 
complete sentences grouped into paragraphs according to the sense ; 
and stop when you have done. Use simple words, avoiding slang. 

55. (h) The reply to a business letter should acknowledge its 
receipt, give its date, and refer to its contents. We may say, for 
example, "Your favor of the 28th ult., in answer to our inquiries, is 
at hand," etc. 

56. Position, Form, etc. (a) The Body begins under the end of 
the introduction, or if that is long, on the same line with the saluta- 
tion. There should be a narrow margin at the left extending the 
whole length of the page ; we should write legibly, without crowding, 
and never divide a syllable at the end of a line. 

5 7. (b) None but the most common abbreviations are to be used, 
and no figures except in connection with dates and large sums of 
money. The sign & is to be used only in the name of a firm. 

[A letter is given as a model on p. 30.] 



V. THE COMPLIMENTARY ENDING. 

58. The Complimentary Ending is a courteous assur- 
ance of good faith, respect, or affection, which is added to 
the end of a letter. One should say something that is in 
keeping with the style of letter he has written, and with 
his relations to the person addressed; and he should at 
the same time express his feelings truthfully. 

1. Form. 

59. (a) In business or formal letters the common forms are: 
Yours truly ; Yours respectfully ; (Very) truly yours ; (Very) respect- 
fully yours; and in extremely formal letters, such as are sometimes 
written to high officials, Form 17, or something similar, may be used. 
(Forms, pp. 25-30.) 

60. (b) For friendly or familiar letters there is a great variety of 
other forms, some of which are given in the models. Other examples 



22 LETTE11-WR1TING. 

are : Faithfully yours ; With highest regards ; Yours ever ; Most truly 
yours; Yours sincerely; Your loving sister; Believe me to be your 
devoted son ; Ever most gratefully yours. (Forms 3, 6, 14.) 
"Yours, etc.," is vulgar. 

2. Position. 

61. The conclusion begins on the line following the body of the 
letter, and is indented about one-third the width of the page. If it is 
long, it should be arranged in two or three lines, like the heading and 
the address. (Forms, pp. 25-30.) 



VI. THE SIGNATURE. 

62. The Signature is the name of the person who 
writes or dictates the letter. When a person writes as 
an officer of any sort, he should add his official name 
(Form 9) ; and when he signs for another person, he 
should give both names. (Form 20.) 

63. (a) The signature is to be written distinctly on the line fol- 
lowing the complimentary ending, and indented about half the width 
of the page. 

(b) In all business, formal, or extremely important letters, it should 
be written in full, and in every other letter when there might possibly 
be a doubt as to who sent it. 

(c) A lady when writing to a stranger must sign her name, so as 
to show whether she is to be addressed as Miss or as Mrs. (Form 22.) 

Place and Date, or Address, at the End. 

64. (a) When the place and date are not given as a heading, they 
are to be added in the same form at the left of the page, on the line 
below the signature. (Forms 12 and 22.) Or, — 

(b) The address may be put here if omitted at the beginning. 
(Form 17.) 

(c) The place to which a reply is to be sent should be given here, 
if it is not the same as the place of writing. (Form 14.) 



THE SUPERSCRIPTION. 23 



EXERCISE 18. 



1. Copy the closing forms from the models on pages 25-30 upon 
slate or paper ruled the width of a note or letter sheet. 

2. Write the different forms of conclusions and signature that 
you might use — 

1. In a formal letter to a stranger ; to your employer ; to a judge. 

2. In a familiar letter to your mother; to a cousin ; to an intimate 
friend ; to your teacher, giving her address at the left. 

3. In a business letter to a lawyer; to a dry goods firm; to the 
editor of a paper ; to the mayor of a city, asking him to address you 
at some place named. 



VII. FOLDING, 

65. Fold a letter-sheet by turning up the lower edge to meet the 
upper evenly. Then fold twice the other way, — first the left edge, 
then the right, making the distance between the folds a little less 
than the width of an envelope. 

66. Fold the lowest third of a note-sheet toward the top, then 
fold the upper end toward the bottom. If the paper is wider than 
the length of the envelope, fold it in the middle from the bottom to 
the top, and then from left to right. If the envelope is nearly square, 
fold the paper once in the middle. 



VIII. THE SUPERSCRIPTION, ETC. 

67. The Superscription, or address upon the envelope, 
is chiefly for the benefit of post-office officials, and should 
be written so fully and so distinctly as not to hinder in 
any way the speedy delivery of the letter. 

68. Contents. Besides the name and title with the post-office 
and state, there must be sometimes the street and number; some- 
times the county; and sometimes the name of the person to whose 
care the letter is sent, — all arranged as shown in Forms 23-26. 



24 LETTEK-WRITING. 

69. Position: The superscription should generally be on the 
lower half of the envelope, and each successive line should begin a 
little further toward the right. 

70. The Punctuation may be the same as that used in the letter, 
especially to indicate abbreviations and to separate two parts when 
written on the same line. 1 

71. Return Address. The name and address of the sender are 
often placed in the upper left-hand corner, that the letter may be 
returned if not delivered. This is sometimes an important addition, 
as when it is not certain that the letter is rightly addressed, or when 
the full name of the writer is not given inside. (Form 25.) 

72. The stamp should be evenly placed, right end up, about an 
eighth of an inch from the right-hand corner. Enclose a stamp to 
pay for sending the reply, when you think it only fair to do so. 

EXERCISE 19. 

Rule rectangles on slate or paper, making them 6 inches long by 3J 
inches wide, or the exact shape of some envelope, and copy the 
models on p. 29. Then write envelope addresses to the follow- 
ing:— 

1. To your father, mother, brother, sister, or some classmate; to 
some clergyman of your acquaintance ; to a friend, in care of his or 
her father, whose post-office box is numbered 47. 

2. To a doctor of divinity named Gilbert Shaw, living in Cincin- 
nati, at 24 Wilson Sq. 

3. To Emmett, Kent & Co., a firm of lumber dealers, doing business 
in Clinton, Illinois. Clinton is in De Witt Co. 

4. To the wife of John Alden, who lives in the capital of Ohio, at 
91 Garfield Avenue. 

5. To a firm composed of Miss Decker and Miss Fitz, whose mil- 
linery rooms are in Cumberland St., No. 201, Nashville, Tennessee. 

1 Note. — Punctuation is meant to be a help to the reader; and on envelopes where 
there is nothing but the address, and where the parts of tbat are already separate 
enough, the best usage is to omit terminal points as in the laat two models. 



FORMS. 



25 



73. Observe carefully the position, capitals, and punc- 
tuation of the parts of a letter as given in these forms. 

r 

[Form I.] 

■ c/Jrewtcm, ln<Mf 25, 1888. 

[Form 2.] 

J ami MsVb& jcyw w-itt k& atacl 

[Body of letter.] 

to h&OAs, lt&. 

[Form 3.] 



[Form 4.] 

JC&XA/ncjLcwu, THoaas. , 

[Form 5.] 

if&Us JhOA>& of vumAyyvcU/ria cm&, 





[Fc 


rm 6.] 




Vowis^, 


(My 


Ul>Ub ; 










CUi&£y. 



26 LETTER-WRITING. 



[Form 7.] 
/? RaAf yt., 

[Form 8.] 

Tftws. <§ / )n / mcb ^a/nd&uMm, . 
hbcuv Iflaxla/vn, — 

Vowu im,cj/iv(AAf of Uio 10th, 
l^wta/vut (MmA&i/yiiwicf , &U 

[Form 9.] 

W-iLUamv 3. W-cuul, 



[Form 10.] 

Jn i&folaf to- imvb found on 
tati/yn jov S^lvuA^xiciy muxt 

[Form II.] 

l}lMf tAAllaf IfOWlfa, 

[Form 12.] 

c/t&wUiAAf, TTiatf / , /8<?/. 
2 o 'eloefc. 



FORMS. 27 



[Form 13.] 






500 &LeA>-&lasvbcL C(a>-&. 


f 




&JvL&cup-, jwvie, 


&, 


/8</f. 



J onai/Qyt tdL ycm, wy d&(Ub Iflot/fbUb, 

wibOit Cu Ml/l/pAsO&o, vt& 

[Form 14.] 

Vowo lovi/yua dcwxjJvbvb, 

S cUa,&@Z to- 



[Form 15.] 

(^xyyitAAvemtaL /fot&l, 



[Form 16.] \ f«ty h '**?• 



hz/femrt/M£/rifc, ets 

[Form 17.] 

J ami, ^lv, 

/few,. 7/(Mns. 771. (ov-oaZq,, 

20/yybcU'Oi,, Vt. 



28 LETTEK-WRITING. 



[Form 18.] 

d n t. £<yaU, Tflo-., 

hea. 2<f, /88<?. 

[Form 19.] 

THwjqa^. Jamic& Iflcyvvbot If <&&., 
£fyuKMUh&, Jr. V. 

jol&ouu, jimxl & d'houpb, ets 

[Form 20.] 

By fob*, &>U. 



[Form 21.] 

/fat. ttwAAf S. ttmAA/yujfccwb, 

TTly d&eub cfOu.- — W-UL you, hi/yidJUf 
r n/}fb m&, ets 



[Form 22.] 

(??Iul&} £wuLif (Z. j&yikiAw,. 

Clucj. f, /888. 



FORMS. 
FORMS OF SUPERSCRIPTION. 



29 



<§ 

^ 



^ 



^ 



<$ 









OR 












§ 
^ 



<* 



*% 



1 1 



3 



^ 



^ 



^ 



^ 



^ 



^ 



^ 



30 LETTER-WRITING. 

t&v, 



[Form 27.] 



tf'wfit. of tJtb (ZtlamyUs TTlWU, 
LaAiyoz/yiAsb, Tricon. 

h&ouv ^fuv . J wiaJv to a/Jo/foldf 

tkz fw&i/Luyi'b "ivAiaA yyu, (uUyuutiM^ uru tA& 
oncyi/nJAva "Jowi/yuaL." 

J ami; tAwfee/n? y&cuba< old, a/nxi Juvot fw&t 
ab(uUuatuL fwwu tA& CCcla/m^ ^&/voot. J 
cum wdL a/ruL atuyyua, a/nd mot cufuilcl of 
wmA. J t/hA/nA J m/yu zoA/ia, fowo clolloAfc 
ci w-z&i, a/iuL oJvatl ixy to 6-& f<utA^ul to 
ofoj vm/foloiftis. 

J &a/>v (yu/yua cu wsoonnnMuLztiMv fumv 
yyuu tzcMJht'b, 71%. Soul, a/ruL a/KsoUhVb p 
iJvb amMvma/yu fov tvAjyyyu J w<yi£ui cUui t 
wvu loutifc mionmiuu v-asatlorv. 



fOWW, V-UUlf 1W 

ttowuif £F. £cbmA4/nd&. 



FORMS FOR NOTES OF INVITATION, ETC. 31 

[To the Teacher. Informal invitations may follow one of the preceding 
letter-forms. Formal invitations and replies are written in the third person 
upon note paper or cards. They are dated at the hottom, and no signature is 
added. The following models may he used.] 



FORMAL INVITATION. 

/ ftL&6USbWb& of TTliMb ti&L&ru ^/bcbyvb'tb &o / m^- 
pa/ym cm 3ii&uCaAf zw&ruurua, ll^cuy /St/u, at 

INVITATION ACCEPTED. 

sftl&tMsWbb 7ftia& Sleldi/yoa- '<& i/i^w^a/tuyrb fab 

INVITATION NOT ACCEPTED, 

fJvb fauuiawfr iiln>&3b& of tuub wvotktA; pb&- 
vurutfa Jvub (im&pta/vb&& of 77U&& Si&tcCi/yia'fa 
kwbcl imAKt(dla7b fao ^tfrcLay bv-rnvt/yucf, 

TflOAf IStfb. 



32 LETTER-WRITING. 



EXERCISE 20. 

Upon a properly shaped page, write the very best letter 
you can, whether long or short, and whatever the subject. 
Refer constantly to preceding forms and directions. 

1. Your father wishes you to bring your copy-book home that he 
may see your improvement in penmanship. Write a letter to your 
teacher, asking permission to do this. You may say which book you 
mean, when you would like to take it, or how your father came to ask 
about your writing. (Use Forms 1, 10, 11.) 

2. Your teacher thinks you have been rather careless in your 
writing, and wishes your father to wait until the close of the term 
before examining the book. Write to your father a letter explain- 
ing the matter fully. (Use Forms 1, 2, 3.) 

3. A friend of yours, named , has invited you to drive next 

Saturday afternoon. Write to your mother, who is in an adjoining 
town, asking leave to go, and telling her all you know about how 
many are going, where you are to go, and how late you are to stay. 
(Follow Forms 7, 2, 3.) 

4. Your mother has a plan to receive company at that time, and 
wishes you to be at home. Write to your friend about the matter, 
expressing your thanks and regrets. (Use Forms 7, 5, G.) 

5. Miss Elsie White, of 13 Franklin St., Hartford, has received a 
Maltese kitten by express from her friend Mary Ford, who lives in 
Newington. She is much pleased, and writes a letter acknowledging 
the gift and mentioning some traits that she has discovered in her new 
pet. Write Elsie's letter. (Select from Forms 4 and 7, 5, 10, and 13.) 

6. Master Harry W. Smith has just received by mail from his 
uncle Henry a copy of Dickens's "A Child's History of England " as 
a birthday present. He writes to his uncle, acknowledging the receipt 
of the book, and expressing his thanks. The boy lives in Rutland, Vt., 
and has always been fond of stories and of history. Write his letter. 
(Look at Forms 4 and 13, 2 and 8, 3, 11, before you decide what to 
use.) 



EXERCISES. 06 

7. Write to Messrs. Geo. Beck & Sons, Rochester, N.Y., asking 
them to send you six varieties of flower seeds, which you may name 
in a column, with the price of each set opposite. Write as if you 
enclosed a postal order for fifty cents. (Select what you think appro- 
priate forms.) 

8. Write to the postmaster in your city or town to ask the cost of 
sending books through the mail. Before writing, decide exactly what 
you mean to ask. (Compare Forms 13 and 18, 21, 11, 9, 20.) 

9. Write the answer that, as an officer of the Government, he 
sends you. (Select parts of Forms 8, 9, 17.) 

10. Write to a friend asking to borrow a certain book, and offer- 
ing to send in return one which you name. Tell why you want the 
one, and why you recommend the other. 

11. Write his reply. He explains when you can have the book, 
and why not at once. (Try Form 12.) 

12. Write to the chairman of the School Committee inviting him 
to be present at exercises to be held in your school on Washington's 
birthday. State the time, and tell what is to be expected. (Use Forms 
21, 26.) 

13. Monroe & Henry are expressmen doing business at 147 Spruce 
St. Write them to call for your trunk in time for a certain train 
which you wish to take at the nearest railroad station. Be very 
definite. 1 

14. Alice Harrison Doe invites her cousin, Mary Sands, to spend 
the holidays with her, and tells some of her plans for Christmas day 
and the week following. Alice lives at the Armington Home, Phila- 
delphia, and her cousin at 213 Murray Ave., Harrisburg. Refer to a 
previous visit, (Use Forms 15, 12.) 

15. Miss Mary's mother is ill, and she is unable to come. Write 
the reply in which she tells what she is busy about. 

16. Having broken a neighbor's window while playing ball, you 
write an apology, and tell what arrangements you will make for re- 
pairing the damage, if the gentleman does not object. (Use Forms 7, 
8, 11.) 

1 The teacher may give directions for writing this in the third person. 



34 LETTER-WRITING. 

17. Write to the publishers of this book, asking to have a copy of 
it sent to some person who lives in a neighboring town, and who has 
asked you to buy a copy for him. Write as if you were to enclose pay- 
ment. (Use Forms 15, 21.) 

18. Suppose you have trouble with your eyes or head, and wish to 
drop one of your studies for a time. Write to some member of the 
School Board or to the Superintendent, making the request, giving 
your reasons, and referring to a physician. (Use Forms 21, l'7.) 

19. Samuel Underbill, who lives in Park Square, Troy, X.Y., en- 
closes two dollars to D. Lothrop & Co., Publishers of Wide Awake, 
Boston. Mass., as the subscription price of that magazine for a year. 
Write his letter. 

20. Write to Wm. Constable & Co., asking that some samples of 
dress goods be sent to your mother's address. Give them some idea 
of the kind wanted. They do business in Broadway, Xew York City. 1 

21. Mrs. Betsey Trotwood, who lives in Syracuse, X.Y., at 95 Her- 
kimer St., has received a tub of butter from Ralph Lane, a farmer 
living in Jamesville, X.Y. It was sent with the understanding that 
it might be exchanged. It is not satisfactory, and Mrs. T. writes 
accordingly. Reproduce her letter. (Use Form 19.) 

22. Write to D. Appleton & Co., Xew York, asking them to send 
you by express, C.O.D., four books, or sets of books, which you are to 
name. Give them an idea of the style of binding you prefer. 

23. Write to some clergyman whom you know, asking him for a 
letter of introduction and recommendation to a gentleman of whom 
you expect to seek employment in another city. 

24. Thomas Bond, Secretary of the "Alert" Base Ball Club, Clin- 
ton, writes a challenge, addressed to Frank Merriman, Secretary of the 
" Stars " of Fairview, for a series of three match games, beginning 
next Saturday afternoon. 

Merriman replies, accepting the challenge, and proposing a time 
and place for a meeting to arrange details. Write both letters. (See 
Forms 21 and 9.) 

1 May be written in the third person, without the writer's name. 



EXERCISES, 35 

25. Dr. Thomas F. Snow lives in Revere St., Boston, at number 96. 
He wishes to purchase a residence in one of the suburbs, costing not 
over $5,000. He writes to Geo. H. Chapin & Co., Real Estate Agents, 
Herald Building, Boston, telling them what he wants, and asking 
them to communicate with him. Write his letter. (Use Forms 13, 
21, 11.) 

26. They reply to Mr. Snow, describing two places they have for 
sale, — one in Arlington, and the other in Melrose. They give him 
an idea of the size of each house, of the location, price, terms of pay- 
ment, etc., and invite him to call and see them. Write their letter. 
(Use Forms 7, 14, 20.) 

27. FOR SALE. A farm of thirty-five acres, all under cultivation. 
Price reasonable, and terms easy. For full particulars, address 
Lemuel Mason, Sharon, Mass. 

Edward Poorman answers this advertisement. His address is P.O. 
Box 315, Providence, R.I. Write his letter. 

28. Mr. Mason replies, giving a full description of the farm, stating 
price, reasons for selling, and other facts which a purchaser might 
wish to know. Write his letter. 

29. Write to your grocer to send you "on account" a definite 
quantity of four kinds of groceries. You may complain of the quality 
of the last oil he sent you, and explain how it burns. You will try a 
different brand. 

30. TO LET. A small house, in a pleasant, retired situation. For 
particulars, address Jos. B. Arnold, P.O. Box 1492, Chicago, 111. 

Dr. Allan Downs, who lives at 396 Madison St. in the same city, 
answers this advertisement, asking information. Write his letter. 

31. Mr. Arnold replies, describing the house and giving its loca- 
tion, price of rent, etc. Write his letter. 

32. As clerk for Bond Brothers, dealers in hay and grain, 94 Port- 
land St., Lowell, Mass., write to the Freight Agent of the B. & M. 
R.R., Portland, Me., inquiring about the delay in the shipment of 
three carloads of hay consigned to your firm on a certain date. 

33. WANTED. A boy in a hardware store to learn the business. 
Must be honest, willing to work, and ready to give up the use of 



36 LETTER- WRITING. 

tobacco if desired. Address, stating age, residence, qualifications, and 
references, Frank Purington & Co., 294 Hudson St.. Albany, X.Y. 

Guy Wheeler, who lives in Cohoes, X.Y.. answers this advertise- 
ment. Write his letter. 

34. Write to a classmate, telling what magazine you see each 
month, and what there is in it that especially interests yon. 

35. Write to your mother, telling, in a merry, sprightly way. how 
you pjass your time in school on days you like the best. 

36. Write to your sister, telling her about a day when everything 
went wrong with you, and whether it was your own fault or not. 

37. Write to a schoolmate, telling what your plans are for your 
future life after leaving school. 

EXERCISE 21. 

IMAGINATIVE LETTERS. 

In writing the following, the heading and the address may be 
omitted. 

1. Two books have long stood side by side in a store. One of them 
is at last sold, and writes a letter to the other. Imagine how a book 
would feel to be bought by a boy, or a beautiful young lady, or an 
old gentleman with a large library, and what experiences it might 
have to tell. 

2. Write what the book that was left might reply about missing 
its companion, about those that have visited the store, and about its 
prospects of being sold. 

3. A doll that has been neglected for a new and prettier one writes 
a letter to its little mistress. 

4. A little bird that has been left in charge of a friend while its 
mistress is absent, writes to its mistress a letter. 

5. Write the message of an overworked stage-horse to the Society 
for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. 

6. What would a robin say to the boy who killed its mate and 
robbed its nest ? 



CHAPTER VI. 

NARRATIVE -WRITING. 1 
I. NARRATIVES OF PERSONAL EXPERIENCE. 

74. An orderly and connected account of what has 
sometime taken place may be called a Narrative. 

EXERCISE 22. 

Narrate your experience with some pet animal, — a dog, a cat, 
a horse, a bird, or rabbits, etc. Observe this order, and make a con- 
nected whole : — 

1. What pet; kind or breed, name. 2. Size, color, age, value. 
3. How and when obtained. 4. When or where kept. 5. Food; 
what, how often, by whom. 6. Habits, day and night. 7. Friends 
and enemies, or likes and dislikes. 8. Intelligence ; tricks, anecdotes. 
9. What became of it, how much affection you have for it, or why it 
was worth petting. 

EXERCISE 23. 

Observe carefully the events of a day or half-day in your school, 
making notes of what happens if need be. Next day narrate these 
events in the form of a letter to your uncle or aunt, following the 
order in which they occurred. 

Say most about what is most important, but omit nothing that is 
needed to make the account complete. Try to make it clear and 
interesting. 

Mail this letter if your teacher approves and thinks it is well 
enough written. 

75. Directions. In writing a narrative of any kind, — 
1. Do not begin a sentence until you have thought it 

through and know just how it is to end. 

1 To the Teacher. See Our Language, p. 58. 



38 NARRATIVE-WRITING. 

2. Keep the order in which the events occurred, unless 
you have a good reason for following some other method. 

3. Mention every point that is needed to give the 
reader a clear idea of what happened. 

4. Say most about Avhat is most important or interest- 
ing, and omit useless details. 

5. Make the narrative a connected whole, but do not 
string sentences together with " ands." 

6. Write naturally, as you would talk, and use no 
words whose meaning you do not know. 

7. Punctuate carefully as }^ou write. 

EXERCISE 24. 

Tell how you spent your last pleasant holiday. The following 
outline may help you. 

1. Your subject. 2. Pleasant expectations: what preparation 
made; what hoped for. 3. The night before. 4. The morning; first 
occupation; plans for the day; company. 5. The afternoon ; where; 
with whom. 6. The dinner. 7. The evening; all details. 8. Feel- 
ings; surprises; disappointments; enjoyment. 

EXERCISE 25. 

Each of the following may be the subject of a narrative about your 
personal experiences. Begin by making an outline similar to those 
provided in previous exercises. 

1. The Fourth of July. 2. Christmas. 3. A Saturday Afternoon. 
4. A Day in the Country. 5. An Evening at the Fair. 0. A Shop- 
ping Expedition. 7. A Visit to the Museum. 8. How T helped on 
the Farm. 0. A Day at the Seaside. 10. The Surprise Party. 11. A 
Base-ball Match. 12. The Toboggan Slide. 1:5. A Candy-pull. 
14. A Day in the Kitchen. 15. A Journey. 10. A Rainy Day. 



EXERCISES. 



EXERCISE 26. 



Under the direction of your teacher, visit with a companion some 
one of the following in the neighborhood of your school. Then make 
an outline, and write an account of your visit. 



A Cotton Mill. 
A Shoe Factory. 
A Grist Mill. 
The Custom House. 
A Machine Shop. 
A Bookbinder's. 
The Poor House. 
The County Jail. 
The Old Mill. 



The Telephone Exchange. 

The Ship Yard. 

A Newspaper Press Room. 

A Cemetery. 

The Old Fort. 

The Lighthouse. 

The Falls. 

A Brick Yard. 

A Woodland Road. 



EXERCISE 27. 

1. What is a biography? 

2. Write a biography of your father. 

3. What is an autobiography? Write one, using these sug- 
gestions : — 

Your name — birthplace and date — names and occupation of 
parents — place of residence — schools attended — different studies 

— out-of -school lessons, such as music or dancing — other occupa- 
tion or pursuits — habits of rising — work to do — fondness for 
work — sports — books read — kind of reading preferred — friends 

— plans for future education — for business — object in life — natu- 
ral disposition — is it best to be noble or rich or good or wise. 

76. In collecting materials this may serve as an 

Outline for a Biographical Sketch. 

I. Introduction. Name, and how best known. 
II. Birth. Time, place, and — generally — ancestry. 
III. Childhood and Youth. Education ; preparation and training 
for life-work; early pursuits, habits, dispositions. 



40 NARRATIVE-WRITING. 

IV. Chief Events of Life, public and private, in their order. 

V. Death. Time, place, circumstances. 

VI. Characteristics. Personal appearance and bearing; mental 
and moral qualities ; likes and dislikes, ability and culture. 

VII. Results of Life. Development of self ; example to others ; ser- 
vice to individuals, to the country, to the world. 

77. Outline and notes for a sketch of the life of 
Abraham Lincoln. 

I. Introduction. Sixteenth Pres. of U. S. during Civil War. Savior 
of country. 

II. Birth. Ky., Feb. 12, 1809. Ancestors from England with Wm. 
Penn. Father could neither read nor write. Mother a remarkable 
woman. 

III. Childhood and Youth. Had but a few months' schooling. 
Toiled all day on farm, read by light of log-fire at night. The Bible, 
Pilgrim's Progress, jEsop's Fables his favorites. Borrowed law-books 
at night to study, returned them in the morning. 

IV. The Chief Events of Life. In 1816 his father moved to 
Indiana. At 11, he met a great loss in death of mother. At 19, on a 
flatboat to New Orleans. At 21, moved to Illinois, helped build log- 
cabin, split 3000 rails for fence. Then successively clerk, captain in 
Black Hawk war, bookkeeper, postmaster, surveyor, and lawyer. At 
25, in Legislature. Home in Springfield. Married in 1812. In Con- 
gress, 1846. Candidate for U. S. Senator in 1858. Defeated. Presi- 
dent, 1861 till death. Condition of country and conduct of war a 
great anxiety and responsibility. Emancipated slaves, 1863. 

V. Death. Assassinated April 14, 1865. Mourned at home and 
abroad. 

VI. Characteristics. Tall, awkward, ungainly. Common sense, 
honest}-, fidelity, kindness, patriotism. " Plain man of the people." 
One of the great men of history. 

VII. Results of Life. Wise conduct of great war. Saved the 
Union. Freed the slaves. Remembered with affection and gratitude. 
Next to Washington. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 41 

EXERCISE 28. 
Make a study of the Life of Lincoln as you find it given in books, 
and then write a biographical sketch. Use the preceding notes, and 
iollow the directions given in § 75. 

EXERCISE 29. 
Prepare notes according td the plan given, and write sketches 
of one or more of these 

Statesmen and Inventors. 
George Washington. Robert Fulton. 

Benjamin Franklin. Eli Whitney. 

Alexander Hamilton. James Watt. 

Thomas Jefferson. George Stephenson. 

Andrew Jackson. S. F. B. Morse. 

Daniel Webster. Charles Goodj^ear. 

Henry Clay. Richard Arkwright. 

Ulysses S. Grant. Thomas A. Edison. 

EXERCISE 30. 

Write a sketch of the Life of Longfellow, using any facts that you 
can remember from your reading. Those suggested here will not be 
enough. 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the best beloved of American poets 
— Feb. 27, 1807, Portland, Me.— Bowdoin College at 14, graduated 
at 18 — chosen Professor of Modern Languages at Harvard at 28 — his 
home, a house occupied by Washington in 1775-76. — Charles Kingsley 
said of his face that it was the most beautiful he had ever seen. — 
Poems noted for sweetness and purity — His courteous, pure, beauti- 
ful life the best poem of all — Died March 24, 1882 — The inheritance 
of his writings. 

EXERCISE 31. . 

Prepare outline notes as in § 77, and write a sketch of the life 
of one or more of these 

Authors. 

William Shakespeare. 
Sir Walter Scott. 
Washington Irving. 



William Cullen Bryant. 



Ralph Waldo Emerson. 
James Russell Lowell. 
John Greenleaf Whittier. 

Oliver "Wendell Holmes. 



42 NA B RAT I VE-WB ITING. 



EXERCISE 32. 



Study the life of Joan of Arc until you can write something more 
than is given in these notes. 

Born 1412 — daughter of a peasant — could spin and sew, not read 
nor write — strong, beautiful, poetic, fond of adventure, of great piety. 
At 16 understood cause of war between France and England — re- 
solved to deliver France. Friendless — poor — trained to horseback 
riding. Laughed at by the great — believed in by the common people. 
Persistent — approved by King — led many to battle — won victory. 
Accused of heresy — burned at stake. 

EXERCISE 33. 

After studying and comparing the lives of two persons prominent 
in history, make an outline and write a sketch of each life. Then 
write a comparison of their likenesses and differences. You may 
select from the following: — 



Queen Elizabeth. 
Mary Queen of Scots. 
Victoria. 
Alfred the Great. 
Peter the Great. 



Sir Walter Raleigh. 
William E. Gladstone. 
George Peabody. 
Xapoleon Bonaparte. 
David Livingstone. 



III. HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 

78. Historical events are incidents in the life of a 
people or nation. They are parts of the story of the life 
of mankind ; and the doings of the chief actors make up so 
large a part of history that a record of events is often little 
more than a sketch of the life of some prominent man. 

Thus, a biographical sketch of Columbus necessarily includes a 
narrative of the "Discovery of a New World," and to tell of the 
" Conquest of Mexico " is to sketch the life of its conqueror, Her- 
nando Cortez. 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 43 

EXERCISE 34. 

Prepare the outline and notes, and write a sketch of one of 
the following, so as to show the part he played in history. 

Hernando Cortez. 
Francisco Pizarro. 



Christopher Columbus. 
Ferdinand de Soto. 
Henry Hudson. 
William Penn. 



Benedict Arnold. 
Tecumseh. 



79. Generally something like the following will serve 

best as an 

Outline for a Historical Sketch. 

I. Introduction. The subject : why interesting or important. 

II. Cause or Purpose. What led to the event. 

III. Time and PlaCe. 

IV. Principal Actors, and their relations to one another. 
V. Details, given in natural order. 

VI. Effect produced at the time. 

VII. Conclusion. Thoughts or reflections on the event as a whole. 
Influence on the nation's life or future history. 

(a) The writing of a good historical sketch, or, for that matter, of 
anything else, requires a clear knowledge of the subject, which must 
come from reading, study, and conversation. Note-taking is often 
helpful. 

SO. Outline and notes for a sketch of 
Burgoyne's Invasion. 

I. Introduction. Important event of Revolution. Its influence on 
the result. 

II. Object. Plan to divide the country. Clinton going north from 
New York City, Burgoyne going south to meet him. 

III. Time, Place. June-Oct., 1777. Canada; N.Y.; Vt. 

IV. Principal Actors. Burgoyne, St. Leger, Baum ; Schuyler, 
Gates, Stark. Duty of each. 



44 



NARRATIVE- WAITING. 



V. Details. Route via Lake Champlain and the Hudson; 8000 
men; English; Hessians; Indian allies. Expedition of St. Leger to 
Ft. Schuyler via St. Lawrence and Oswego (Oriskauy), and of Col. 
Baum to Bennington. Both defeated. Capture of Fts. Ticonderoga, 
Crown Point, Edward. Two battles at Saratoga. Lost. Defeat; no 
retreat ; no provisions. Surrender of army, Oct. 17, 6000 men. 

VI. Effect. Americans encouraged. France acknowledged inde- 
pendence. 

VII. Conclusion. Victory timely, as it followed defeats. Greatest 
influence in ending the war. 



EXERCISE 35. 

Prepare the outlines and write a historical sketch on 
goyne's Invasion " or on one of these subjects : — 



Bur- 



The Discovery of America. 
The Landing of the Pilgrims. 
King Philip's War. 
The Exile of the Acadians. 
The Battle of Quebec. 
The Boston Tea-party. 
Battle of Lexington. 
Battle of Bunker Hill. 
Declaration of Independence. 
Arnold's Treason. 



The Siege of Vorktown. 

Battle of Lake Erie. 

The Burning of the Capitol. 

The Firing on Sumter. 

Battle of Gettysburg. 

The Death of Lincoln. 

The Mexican War. 

The First Voyage of Columbus. 

An Incident of the Revolution. 

Our National Flag. 



EXERCISE 36. 

Write a little history of the State in which you live. Tell when 
it was settled, and for what purpose. The events of the first years. 
The w T ars and important changes. Its growth in population, com- 
merce, manufactures, etc. 



EXERCISE 37. 
Prepare an outline, and write a brief history of 



Your native town. 


New Orleans. 


California 


The city in which you live. 


Cuba. 


Florida. 


The city of Washington. 


Chicago. 


Texas. 



CHAPTER VII. 

DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 1 

81. In narratives about persons, we relate actions per- 
formed by them from time to time, and describe the cir- 
cumstances in which they were placed. A narrative, then, 
is made up of short or long descriptions of deeds, persons, 
places, and things ; and it is in the writing of Descrip- 
tions that we are to have special practice now. 

EXERCISE 38. 
Use each word appropriately in describing some object as to size, 
weight, or height. Thus : — 
"An extensive plain; a towering cliff." 



large 

tiny 

thick 

shallow 

boundless 

great 



light 
elevated 
microscopic 
spacious 
big- 
thin 



gigantic 

capacious 

vast 

broad 

narrow 

huge 



wide 

minute 

dwarfed 

delicate 

small 

high 



puny 

extensive 

little 

deep 

slight 

lofty 



EXERCISE 39. 
Explain the direction of lines that are - 



straight 


wavy 


vertical 


radiating 


perpendicular 


curved 


spiral 


horizontal 


convergent 


zigzag 


diagonal 


slanting 


parallel 


oblique 


intersecting 



EXERCISE 40. 
Explain the form of objects that are — 
square 1 elliptical I cylindrical I plane I annular 

rectangular I oval | conical | corrugated | tapering 



1 To the Teacher. See Our Language, p. 69. 



46 



DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 



oblong 


convex 


cubical 


arched 


slender 


hexagonal 


concave 


prismatic 


similar 


pointed 


octagonal 


spherical 


pyramidal 


gibbous 


stellated 



EXERCISE 41. 
Find one or more words that describe the form of - 



vases 


pipes 


pencils 


chimneys 


horns 


masts 


stars 


spokes 


roads 


Leaves 


eggs 


needles 


trunks 


sheets 


rainbows 


coins 


saws 


lawns 


barrels 


saucers 



EXERCISE 42. 

Describe the following as to form, referring to Exercise 40 if you 
cannot think of the proper word. Thus : — 

"A tin cup" has & circular base, with a hollow, cylindrical body. On its side is 
a flat, curved handle. 



a broom 


a pin 


a table-knife 


a flute 


a hoe 


a slate 


a river 


a scythe 


a chair 


a bench 


a lead-pencil 


a spoon 


a bell 


a door 


a bottle 



EXERCISE 43. 

1. Use one or more of the words in the first list to describe each 
object named in the second list. Give the color when you can. 



Thus : — 










" Chalk" is white, opaque, porous, and brittle. 








Words that imply Q 


UALITIES. 




transparent 


lustrous 


translucent 


indelible 


jointed 


opaque 


friable 


fluid 


sticky 


plastic 


porous 


volatile 


downy 


fleecy 


flexible 


combustible 


soluble 


granular 


slippery 


fibrous 


inflammal >le 


elastic 


smooth 


brittle 


gaseous 




Words 


III AT NAME ( 


Objects. 




chalk 


rubber 


leather 


paper 


clay 


sponge 


molasses 


bread 


wood 


milk 


glass 


flax 


cotton 


cement 


steam 



EXEECISES. 



47 



iron 
sugar 



I gold 
wax 



I ice | coal 

alcohol kerosene 



I oil 
I putty 



EXERCISE 44. 

Use one or more of the words in the first list in describing each 
object named in the second list. 

Implying Qualities. 



sweet 


spicy 


odorous 


tart 


refreshing 


acid 


pungent 


sour 


insipid 


juicy 


bitter 


astringent 


aromatic 


tasteless 


crisp 


palatable 


fragrant 


nutritious 

OlING ObJECI 


edible 


appetizing 


ginger 


alum 


onions 


water 


melons 


lemons 


butter 


coffee 


vinegar 


radishes 


cloves 


camphor 


mustard 


cologne 


nuts 


wine 


beets 


gravy 


mint 


fruits 



EXERCISE 45, 
Of what materials are the following made ? — 



cloth 


chimneys 


roofs 


monuments 


ropes 


books 


spoons 


pitchers 


pipes 


images 


rings 


dimes 


fences 


tubes 


mortar 


pencils 


ink 


buttons 


dice 


paste 



EXERCISE 46. 

1. Name the parts of objects mentioned in Exercises 41 and 42. 

2. Explain what part is indicated by each of these words : — 



edge 


spire 


apex 


knee 


interior 


slope 


trunk 


margin 


crown 


corner 


branch 


core 


twig 


base 


calyx 


root 


crest 


summit 


gable 


exterior 


bark 


arm 


handle 


petal 


stalk 


ridge 


eaves 


centre 


pinnacle 


bottom 



3. Select all the words that might be used in describing 
— &fiower ; — a house. 



48 DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 

82. A description should be so written as to produce a 
clear picture in the mind of the reader. 

Observe carefully these directions : — 

1. Learn all you can about what you are to describe : 
(a) By observation ; (6) By experiment ; (c) By reading 
and study; (d) By inquiiy. 

2. Do not try to write a description of an object unless 
you can see it or remember it distinctly. 

3. After having gathered the material for your descrip- 
tion, arrange it in order according to one of the plans or 
outlines given. 

4. Think every sentence carefully through before begin- 
ning to write it. Arrange what you say in separate para- 
graphs, according as it pertains to one or another branch 
of your subject. 

5. Use no word or expression of which the meaning or 
the application is not clear to you. 

6. Learn to select words that exactly describe the quality 
to which you wish to refer. Do not be too proud nor too 
lazy to use a dictionary. 

7. Avoid in all your language, whether spoken or writ- 
ten, every slang expression, — not only because slang is 
vulgar, but also because it is a great hindrance to the 
growth of one's vocabulary. 

8. Remember that you cannot become an easy and 
graceful writer or speaker without careful and constant 
practice, and do not be satisfied with the schoolroom 
exercises, if you have time to prepare additional papers 
to be shown to your teacher for criticism and correction. 



COMPARISON AND CONTRAST. 



49 



I. DEFINITION-MAKING. 
EXERCiSE47. 

Define each of these objects that you can see or remember clearly, 
giving a short description of it that will distinguish it from, every- 
thing else. Follow this plan as far as it will apply, giving — 

1. Use. 2. Form. 3. Size. 4. Material. 5. Structure, 

Thus : — 

" What is a window? " This window is an opening in the wall of a dwelling-house 
for the admission of light and air. It is oblong in shape, and about sis feet long by three 
feet wide. It is closed by two wooden sashes, each containing two panes of glass. The 
sashes are made to slide up and down, and they may be fastened by a catch attached to 
either sash. 



a door 


a brush 


a newspaper • 


a railroad 


a chimney 


a table 


a hammer 


a wheelbarrow 


a bottle 


a scythe 


a saw 


a thermometer 


a pencil 


a star 


a saw-horse 


a buggy 


a pen 


a banjo 


a carpet 


a flower 


a boat 


a basket 


a guide-post 


a trunk 


a pitcher 


a hut 


a clock 


a safe 


a rake 


a boat 


a watch 


a nest 


a pail 


a stove 


a piano 


a barometer 


a tent 


a fence 


a bridge 


an engine 



II. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST. 

83. In describing an object it is often a help to com- 
pare or contrast it with something better known, — show- 
ing how the two agree or differ in appearance, structure, 
qualities, use, value, and so on. 



Compare the following 
Structure, (c) Use. 



EXERCISE 48. 

with respect to (a) Form, (b) Parts or 



50 



DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 



1. A pin and a needle. 

2. A spoon and a fork. 

3. A shovel and a pickaxe. 

4. A chair and a bed. 

5. A pail and a box. 

6. A sled and a boat. 

7. A cottage and a palace. 



8. A fence and a wall. 

9. A watch and a clock. 

10. A leaf and a flower. 

11. A bolt and a lock. 

12. A pocket and a purse. 

13. A fireplace and ;t stove 

14. A thermometer and a barom- 

eter. 



EXERCISE 49. 

Compare the following as to their (a) Appearance, (b) Qualities, 
(c) Use, (d) Value. 



1. Coal and wood. 

2. Gold and iron. 

3. Wheat and tobacco. 

4. Cinnamon and cork. 

5. Water and wine. 

6. Pine and mahogany. 



7. P>utter and cheese. 

8. Cotton and wool. 

9. Leather and rubber. 

10. Oil and milk. 

11. Silk and flax. 

12. Flour and honey. 



EXERCISE 50. 

Compare the following with respect to their (a) Size, (b) Parts, 
(c) Habits, (d) Value. 

1. Horse and cow. 5. Wolf and lamb. 

2. Hen and duck. 6. Fly and spider. 

3. Cat and dog. 7. Frog and turtle. 

4. Horse and camel. 8. Butterfly and humming-bird. 



EXERCISE 51. 

Compare the following, showing, in an orderly way. points of like- 
ness and of difference. 



1. Two of your classmates. 

2. Summer and winter. 

3. A church and a jail. 

4. A doctor and a clergyman. 

5. A fanner and a miner. 

6. Boys' sports and girls' sports. 



7. Lawn-tennis and base-ball. 

8. City life and country life. 

9. Travel by stage, by steamboat, 

and by railroad. 
10. The advantages of wealth and 
of education. 



EXERCISES. 51 



III. GENERAL DESCRIPTIONS. 

EXERCISE 52. 

Write as if for a friend who is at a distance and has never visited 
you, a clear and vivid description of your sclioolhouse and schoolroom. 

1. Describe the building: (a) its location; whether pleasant, con- 
venient, and so on. (5) Its surroundings; yard, trees, etc. (c) Its 
age, size, shape, material ; architecture, whether plain or ornamental. 
(77) The entrances, stairways, corridors, arrangement of rooms, dress- 
ing-rooms, etc. 

2. Describe your room : (a) in what part of the building, (b) Size, 
shape ; doors, windows, (c) Furniture ; seats, number, arrangement. 
(d) "Walls, blackboards, maps, ornaments, (e) Such improvements 
as you can suggest. 

EXERCISE 53. 
In the same general way describe — 



1. The church you attend. 

2. The house you live in. 

3. Your sitting-room. 

4. Your grandfather's home. 

5. A mill. 

6. The nearest railroad station. 

7. A blacksmith's shop. 



8. The largest public building in 

town. 

9. A railway car. 

10. A children's play-room. 

11. A farmer's kitchen. 

12. A country store. 

13. An old garret. 



EXERCISE 54. 

1. Describe your Desk at school. Tell its form, materials, and 
arrangement of parts. Compare it with the old-fashioned desk you 
have heard your father tell about. Why do you like or dislike it? 
Imagine what people have sat there before you, and tell what some of 
them may be doing. Think how you will look back upon it in years 
to come. 

2. Describe an Old-fashioned Chair. 

EXERCISE 55. 

Take for your subject — 

1. My Garden. Tell its situation ; its form and size ; how enclosed ; 



52 DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 

how the beds are arranged; what they contain ; just how you have 
managed it this year; what you expect to gather or to raise; what 
you can find in it to interest you if you will. 

2. What 1 see from my Piazza. I 4. The View from a Ilill-top. 

3. What I see on my Way to School. | 5. An Hour in the Woods. 



IV. GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTIONS. 

84. The description of countries, cities, rivers, moun- 
tains, and of other natural or political divisions requires 
careful observation and inquiry as well as reading and 
study. The order in which such subjects may be treated 
is shown by the following 

Outlines. 
I. A City or Town. 

I. Situation. County and state, or the like ; on or in sight of 
what shore, river, lake, mountain, railroad, or important city, — giving 
distance and direction. 

II. Size. Area and population, compared with some other city or 
town. Variety of inhabitants. 

III. Streets and Roads : quality and direction. Principal means 
of approach and transportation. 

IV. Buildings and Public Works : number and character. 
Library, post-office, court-house, churches, school-houses, park, bridges, 
monuments, etc. If a place of note, — the reason. 

V. Leading Industry. Manufactures — what kind. Commerce 
— with what places. Agriculture — what products. 

VI. Surroundings. Character of the suburbs ; natural scenery ; 
places of historic interest. 

VII. History. Brief mention of specially interesting events, of 
remarkable growth and prosperity, or of disasters. 



GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTIONS. 



53 



II. A Country or State. 
I. Situation: in reference to the whole region ; to other states, etc. 
II. Size. Area, or length and breadth, as shown by comparison. 
Population. 

III. Physical Features. The coast, surface, mountains, rivers, 
lakes. The climate and soil. 

IV. Products: (a) animal; (5) vegetable; (c) mineral. 

V. Cities and Towns — the more important. For what noted. 
VI. Trade and Manufactures. Imports, exports, and articles 
manufactured. 

VII. People: race, nationality; chief occupations ; character; edu- 
cation ; religion ; government. Other matters of interest. 



EXERCISE 56. 

Following the general plan given above, describe — 

1. The city or town in which you live. 

2. One or more of the twenty largest cities in the United States. 

3. One or more of the following : — 



London 

Berlin 

Liverpool 



Paris 

Birmingham 

Edinburgh 



Moscow 

Tokio 

Calcutta 



Rome 

Mexico 

Cairo 



Dublin 

Florence 

Vienna 



EXERCISE 57. 

After collecting the necessary information from either persons 
books, arrange it according to the preceding plan in — 

1. A description of your native state or country ; 

2. A description of one or more of the following : — 



England 


Scandinavia 


Spain 


Florida 


Holland 


New York 


Italy 


Chili 


Greece 


Mexico 


France 


Japan 


Russia 


Scotland 


Australia 


Brazil 


China 


Pennsylvania 


Ireland 


Java 


Palestine 


India 


Egypt 


Germany 


California 



54 DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 

V. DESCRIPTION OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 
PRODUCTS. 

85. Man}' Natural Products may be described with the 
help of such an outline as is here applied to — 

Iron. 1 
I. Introduction. The most useful and the most widely dis- 
tributed of metals. 

II. Appearance. A fibrous, dark-gray metal — found mixed with 
other minerals — very bright when polished. 

III. Place where found or made. Most common metal in every 
country. Most valuable mines in Pennsylvania, Great Britain, Sweden, 
Belgium. Of most value when near coal mines. Why? 

IV. Properties, etc. 

Heavy. Nearly eight times as heavy as water. 

Hard. Especially in form of steel and cast-iron. 

Brittle. Compare with glass and lead. 

Fusible. Melts when subjected to great heat. 

Malleable. May be beaten and rolled into sheets. 

Elastic. When made into steel, the most elastic of metals. 

Ductile. May be drawn into wire as fine as a hair. 
V. Method of obtaining or of making. Ore dug from mines — 
crushed — put in furnace and smelted — iron .separated from slag 
— cooled in form of pig-iron, or run into moulds as cast-iron; if again 
heated and hammered, or rolled, it becomes wrought iron ; heated 
again by charcoal, and united with carbon, it becomes steel. 

VI. Uses. In all trades. Machinery, household utensils, ships, 
implements of war and husbandry, tools, bridges, building, cutlery, 
medicine, etc. 

EXERCISE 58. 

1. Expand the preceding notes in a description of Iron. 

2. Following an outline similar to the preceding, prepare a descrip- 
tion of one or more of these product > : — 

1 To the Teacher. Exercises upon this and similar subjects should form the basis 
of several " Information Lessons." 



ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTS. 



55 



Gold 




Tin 




Marble 


Petroleum 


Peat 


Silver 




Brass 




Salt 


Pearls 


Mahogany 


Lead 




Nickel 




Slate 


Diamonds 


Caoutchouc 


Copper 




Coal 




Plumbago 


Sponge 


Cork 


86. 


Artificial 


Products or Manufactured Articles 



may be described after the following plan : — 

Grlass. 
I. Introduction. Well known in many ways, especially for its 
use in windows, when it began in the year 1180 to take the place of 
horn, mica, and oiled paper. 

II. Form or Qualities. Transparent, fusible, ductile, brittle, 
smooth. 

III. Parts or Materials. Sand, soda or potash, lime, and some 
oxides to give brilliancy or color. 

IV. Process of Manufacture. Materials thoroughly mixed into 
a yellowish flour, called frit, and melted twenty-four hours in large 
pots set into a furnace. Allowed to cool until about as thick as paste, 
then taken by workmen. 

Principal tool, the blowing-tube, an iron pipe five feet long, with 
wooden handle. Melted glass taken on end of tube, and blown into 
the required shape, or else rolled or moulded. Cut-glass ware ground 
and polished after blowing. 

V. Kinds. Common window-glass blown into form of hollow 
cylinder, then cut open and flattened. Plate glass made in plates, 
rolled, and polished. Flint glass made of finer materials, used for 
lenses. 

VI. Uses. For windows, bottles, wares of all kinds, optical instru- 
ments, ornaments, etc. 

VII. Conclusion — general remarks. Almost indispensable for 
many purposes; in the telescope, nothing to take its place. 



EXERCISE 59. 

1. Write about Glass, using the foregoing outline and notes. 

2. After properly arranging what you can learn about one or more 
of the following subjects, write an interesting description. 



56 



DESCRIPTIVE WRITING, 



Thermometers 


Paper 


Cheese 


Pins 


Flour 


Cotton Cloth 


Leather 


Silk 


Alcohol 


Starch 


Gunpowder 


Needles 


Oil 


Carpets 


Vinegar 


Barometers 


Soap 


Gas 


A Book 


Honey 


A Wagon 


Bread 


Glue 


Buttons 


Candy 


A Bicycle 


Sugar 


A Ship 


Matches 


A Shoe 



VI. DESCRIPTION 01 PKOCES 

87. To tell how an article is made, or how any tiling is 
done, requires a thorough knowledge of the process and 
considerable skill in expression. We must — 

I. State the object of the process ; the difficulty, frequency of 
it, etc. 

II. Describe the material used ; the tools, utensils, and everything 
else required. 

III. Mention the persons engaged in the work. 

IV. Narrate the details of the operation from beginning to end, 
telling exactly what is done. 



EXERCISE 60. 

Take as a subject whichever of these processes you are familiar 
with, prepare an outline, and write a description of it. 



1. Setting a Table. 

2. Making a Bed. 

3. Harnessing a Horse. 

4. Making a Kite. 

5. Making an Apron. 
G. Getting Supper. 

7. Shoeing a Horse. 

8. Building a House. 
0. "Making Traps. 

10. Making Bricks. 



11. Laying out a Base-ball Ground. 

12. The .Manufacture of Potto 

13. Printing a Newspaper. 

14. Taking Care of Plants. 

15. How to Play my Favorite Came. 
1G. How a Beaver Builds his House. 

17. The Care of a Canary. 

18. Laying out a Tennis-court. 

10. The Coining of a Silver Dollar. 
20. Making Cotton into Cloth. 



DESCRIPTION OF ANIMALS. 57 

VII. DESCRIPTION OF ANIMALS. 
EXERCISE 61. 

1. From what you already know about The Camel, write as good a 
description as you can without making an outline. 

2. Learn what you can about camels from books and persons, study 
the outline in § 88, and then follow it or add to it in rewriting your 
description. 

88. In describing an animal we may follow an outline 
similar to that here applied to — 

The Camel. 

I. Introduction. The camel a large beast of burden ; famous 
as " The Ship of the Desert." 

II. Size, Shape, and Covering. Eight feet high ; much larger 
than a horse; ungainly; humps (one or two) on back; covered with 
rough, dark brown hair. 

III. Place where found : Arabia, Africa, Central Asia. 

IV. Parts. Head small, like a sheep's, no horns ; teeth unlike those 
of most herbivorous animals — more like a dog's, and suited to tearing 
off twigs and shrubs ; neck long, no mane ; body bulky ; legs long, 
slender ; knees provided with a cushion ; feet broad, soft. 

V. Food : thorny shrubs, date leaves, beans. 

VI. Habits and Qualities. Chews the cud ; seldom needs water ; 
has great endurance; patient, obedient, kneels for burden; vicious 
toward its own kind. 

VII. Uses, (a) Beast of burden ; 300 pounds five or six miles an 
hour, (b) Its milk a favorite beverage, (c) Flesh salted for food. 
(d) Fat melted for butter. (<?) Hair made into cloth. 

VIII. Conclusion. Indispensable in long journeys across deserts. 
Anecdotes, etc. 

EXERCISE 62. 
Write a description of one or more of the following, making an 
outline of what is important to be said : — 



58 



DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 



Elephant 


Crocodile 


Frog 


Raccoon 


Reindeer 


Lion 


Ostrich 


Spider 


Sheep 


Cod 


Bear 


Fox 


Bee 


Butterfly 


Salmon 


Wolf 


Whale 


Silkworm 


Horse 




Beaver 


Eagle 


Tiger 


Cow 


Swallow 



VIII. DESCRIPTION OF PLANTS. 

EXERCISE 63. 
Select some plant, either wild or cultivated, of which you know the 
looks and habits very well, and try to describe it. Remember the 
stem, branches, leaves, flowers, and fruit; the shape, size, and color of 
all the parts; when it starts, when it blossoms, when it dies, 

89. It is one thing to be acquainted with a plant, — to 
know how it grows, how it behaves, and how it differs 
from other plants in its stem, its leaves, its flowers, and its 
fruits. This comes only by the study of plants themselves. 

It is quite another thing to know of ivhat use a plant is 
to man, and what treatment it receives. 

90. A general description of a plant as producing" 
something useful to man may follow this 

Outline. 
I. Use and Value for food, clothing, building material, etc. 
II. Place where found, and how discovered. Native or natu- 
ralized ; wild or cultivated. 

III. General Appearance: height, size, trunk, bark, branches, 
foliage, flowers, fruit. Method of propagating. 

IV. Part used. Method of gathering or collecting it, and of pre- 
paring it for its final use. 

EXERCISE 64. 
After reading and asking questions, or after a conversation-lesson 
in school, make an outline, and give a general description of the plant 
from which we get — 



DESCRIPTION OF PERSONS. 



59 



Flour 


Sugar 


Flax 


Rubber 


Mahogany 


Rice 


Cotton 


Tea 


Tobacco 


Oranges 


Corn 


Coffee 


Cork 


Cocoa 


Potatoes 


Figs 


Dates 


Almonds 


Bananas 


Peanuts 



IX. DESCRIPTION OF PERSONS. 

91. It is easy to recognize a person, to distinguish him 
in a crowd, and to learn his ways ; but it is hard to convey 
clearly to others the means of picturing to themselves one 
whom they have not seen,, or of understanding his char- 
acter. We must do the best we can to describe truthfully 
the — 

I. figure. Whether large, tall, stout, well-proportioned, or the 
opposite. 

II. Face. Features, complexion, age, hair, etc. 

III. Manners. Peculiarities of appearance, bearing, action, dress, 
and speech. 

IV. Characteristics. Disposition, habits, peculiar traits, mental 
power, source of reputation, etc. 



EXERCISE 65. 
Describe, after making an outline, one or more of the following : 



1. Your father. 

2. Your most intimate friend. 

3. The family doctor. 

4. A baby. 

5. The oldest person you ever saw. 

6. Yourself. 

7. A tramp. 
S. A farmer. 



9. An Indian. 

10. The most peculiar person you 

know. 

11. A clergyman. 

12. An Englishman. 

13. A Chinaman. 
11. An Italian. 

15. The ideal boy or girl. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



CHOICE OF WORDS. 1 



A. WRONG WORDS. 



92. Incorrect Forms, 

words not in good use. 

Do not say — 

gents for gentlemen or men; 

pants for trousers; 

ad for advertisement; 

kids for gloves ; 

Specs for spectacles; 

thanks for thank you; 

them things, for those things; 

to home for at home ; 

to once for at once ; 

nowheres for nowhere; 

yourn for ^//-n ; 

I am done for I have done; 



d.rcuYZ </// improper forms and 



1 ain't for I'm not ; 
he ai'n'< for he isn't; 
theg ain't for they're not; 
hain't for haven't ; 
says I for I say or said I ; 
just as lives for as lief; 
drownded for drowned; 
attackted for attacked; 
preventative for preventive; 
unbeknown for un&notofi ; 
Mowed, throwed, knowed, etc., for 
ft/eta, threw, knew, etc. 



93. Unnecessary Words. Do not use words that are 
not needed to express the thought clearly. 

For example: r/o< implies action, and should not be used with have 
to show simple possession, as in — We have got ten fingers. 

EXERCISE 66. 
1. Relieve the following sentences of all needless words or ex- 
pressions : — 



1 To the Teacher. See Our Language, p. 87. 



WORDS CONFOUNDED. 61 

1. I have not got any money left. 2. My friend got badly hurt 
yesterday. 3. A widow woman called to see you. 4. From whence 
came they ? 5. Smell of these flowers. 6. Taste of this fruit. 7. You 
had ought to read more. 8. I can never find no time. 9. You have 
stood up too long : sit down a while. 10. He has lost one half of his 
money. 11. Put the vase up on to the shelf. 12. From hence we infer 
his inability. 13. This fact is universally known by all. 14. Pay- 
ment must be made by the latter end of the month. 15. You hadn't 
ought to use any unnecessary words. 16. Where have you been to ? 
17. Had I have known it, I should have gone also. 18. Edward and 
James they both went. 19. A strait connects them together. 

2. Point out the superfluous -words, and show why they are 
unnecessary. 

1. He is equally as anxious as you. 2. Cover the plants over. 3. I 
shall always distrust him whenever he speaks. 4. The journey will 
require three weeks' time. 5. Keep off of the grass. 6. This evidence 
is wonderful and surprising. 7. You cannot give to a more worthier 
object. 8. He may probably go, but he cannot possibly succeed. ' 
9. He was filled with unbounded admiration. 10. I shall first begin 
by showing the defects, and then afterwards I shall finish by showing 
the excellences of the system. 11. He abhorred and detested the idea 
of being in debt. 12. The funeral obsequies were largely attended. 
13. I was just going to go. 14. You do very well for a new beginner. 

15. The fort was completely surrounded on all sides by the enemy. 

16. What you say is very true. 17. Thank those who are co-workers 
together with you. 18. Were you present at the final completion of 
the work? 

94. Words confounded. Avoid the use of one word for 

another somewhat like it inform or pronunciation. 

For example : do not use — 

Except, to leave out, for accept, to receive, to agree to; 

Affect, to act upon, to influence, for effect, to produce, to accomplish ; 

Love, to regard with affection, for like, to be pleased with, to enjoy ; 

Lay, reclined, for laid, placed [see § 512] ; 

Sat, took a seat, for set, placed ; 

Learn, to receive instruction, for teach,, to give instruction. 



62 CHOICE OF WORDS. 



EXERCISE 67. 

Fill the blanks with the appropriate word selected from the pre- 
ceding list. 

1. Please my thanks for your kindness. 2. How was he 

by the news? 3. You cannot so wicked a purpose. 4. I 

good music. 5. Will you me to play chess? <i. Do 

you easily? 7. Have you ever up all night? 8. He 

it away in his safe. 0. He in bed until noon. 10. I 

my neighbors,, but I do not them. 11. His troubles have 

his mind. 12. 1 cannot your invitation. 13. She has 

down to rest. 

EXERCISE 68. 

1. From the dictionary learn the difference in meaning between 
the words in each of the following pairs : — 

1. Prescribe, proscribe; 2. proceed, precede; 3. precise, concise 
4. statue, statute; 5. species, specie; G. respectively, respectfully 
7. expect, suspect ; 8. convince, convict ; 9. lightning, lightening 
10. fly, flee; 11. liniment, lineament ; 12. ingenious, ingenuous. 

2. Use words from the Jirst three pairs to complete these 
sentences : — 

1. What did the physician ? 2. In what order did they 

to the temple? 3. She was very in her manners. 4. What 

you w T rite must be , 5. The band the regiment. 

3. Use each of the remaining words in a sentence or phrase, to 
show that you can discriminate between them. 

EXERCISE 69. 

Tell the difference in the meanings of these words, and use 
each word in a sentence: — 

1. Missives, missiles; 2. emigrants, immigrants; 3. perjury, 
forgery; 1. diseased, deceased ; 5. prospective, retrospective ; <>. lux- 
urious, luxuriant; 7. equity, iniquity; 8. retaliate, reciprocate; 
9. principal, principle ; 10. rout, route; 11. propose, purpose ; 12. con- 
temptible, contemptuous ; 13. complement, compliment. 



ERKORS. 63 

Common Errors in the Choice of Words. 

95. Avoid the use of — 

Above for more than ; as in " I was gone above a week." 

Aggravate for irritate or provoke; as in "The delay aggravated me." 

Aggravate means "make worse." 
Any for at all; as in " He cannot walk any." 
Apt for likely or liable; as in "Where shall I be apt to find it?" 

"Yon will be apt to stumble." 
Back for ago ; as in " This occurred sometime back" 
Bad for ill or sick; as in "He is very bad to-night." 
Balance for rest or remainder; as in "He spent the balance of his 

vacation in Europe." 
Between for among. We should say " between two things," but 

" among more than two." 
Both used with alike ; as in " They are both alike." 
Bound for determined ; as in " The prisoner was bound to be free." 
Can for may; as in " Can I close the window?" which means " Am I 

able to close it ? " 
Consider for think or suppose; as in "I consider him honest." 
A couple of for two ; as "A couple of men." 

Dangerous for in danger ; as in " My father is sick, but not dangerous." 
Died with for died of; as in " He died with consumption." 
Depot for station ; as in " The train is at the depot." 
Different than for different from ; as in " Mine is different than yours." 
Done for did; as in "He done it quickly." We should say, "He did 

it," or " He has done it." 
Don't for doesn't; as in " He don't talk correctly." 
Each other must be used in speaking of two, and one another in 

speaking of more than two ; as in " The twins loved each other." 

" The quartette were jealous of one another." 
Expect, guess, or reckon for suppose, presume, suspect, or think; as 

in " I expect he left town yesterday." " I guess he will go." 
Female for woman, males for men ; as in "Apartments for females." 
Fewer refers to number, less to quantity. We should say, "It will 

require fewer days and less money." 



64 CHOICE OF WOBDS. 

Healthy for wholesome; as in "Milk is healthy for children." 
Hung for hanged. Pictures are hung, men are sometimes hanged. 
Hurry up for make haste. 
Lady for madam or woman ; as in "What will you have, lady f " " She 

is a good lady." " They are sales/'/ 
Lay for lie ; as in " Lay down, Bruno ! " [See § 512.] 
Leave for let : as in " Leave it alone ! " 

Like for as; as in " He did it like I do it." " Speak like I do." 
Mad for vexed, provoked, or angry. 
Most for almost ; as in " He comes most every day." 
Nicely for well ; as in " How do you do ? " " I'm n/ce/?/." 
On to for upon : as in " Get on to the table." 
Partially for partly ; as in -'The work is partially done." 
Party for person; as in " Who was the party you met?" 
Plenty for plentiful ; as in "Money \s plenty." 
Posted or booked up for informed; as in "He is thoroughly posted" 

" Book yourself up on that subject." 
Quantity refers to what is measured, number to what are counted. 

We should say "a quantity of beans, a number of lemons." 
Quite a must not be used for a considerable, a great, a large; as in 

" Quite a number; quite a display." 
Raised for reared ; as in " I was raised in Vermont." 
Real for really or very; as in " real pleasant, real cold." 
Some for someivhat; as in " He is some weaker to-day." 
Stop for stay; as in "I shall stop in Washington a month." 
Street. We should say " I live at number ten in Pine Street." " I 

met him in the street," not on it. 
These or those must not be used with sort or kind : as in " those kind," 

"these sort." Say that or this. 
Transpire for occur or happen; as in " The event transpired in 1770." 
Try for make; as in " Try the experiment." 
Try and for try to; as in >; Try and lift this weight." 
Was must never be used with ice, you, or they as subject; as in 

" Where was you ? " 

EXERCISE 70. 

Correct such sentences in the preceding section as are wrong. Try 
to explain why they are wrong. 



EXERCISES. 65 



EXERCISE 71. 

Point out what you can correct or improve, and read each sen- 
tence as it should be. 

I. Chestnuts are very plenty this year. 2. The trains collided 
together near the depot. 3. Quite a number were severely hurt. 
1. Several have since died with their injuries. 5. I expect that the 
switchman was careless. 6. Mr. Dickens stopped at the Parker House, 
on School Street. 7. There are half a dozen histories, and it is 
very difficult to choose between them. 8. Their authors differ from 
each other on minor points. 9. The machine is partially done, but 
the inventor has been so busy trying experiments that he has not 
worked any this week. 10. Most any one can afford to pay a couple 
of dollars for a real fine copy- like this. 

II. The wounded man is some better, but the doctor still con- 
siders him dangerous. 12. There were less males than females in the 
audience. 13. Where shall I be liable to find the author? 14. His 
injury is a bad one, and will prevent his working for the balance of 
the year. 15. Where was you when he done it? 16. Both the 
brothers look just alike. 17. I guess you have made less mistakes 
than I. 18. Are you posted on these sort of things ? 19. Won't you 
try and not make a noise ? 

96. Exaggerations. Discriminate carefully in the 
choice of descriptive tvords, avoiding all inappropriate or 
exaggerated or " slang " expressions. 

It is useless to try to describe all kinds of things by such words as 
"nice," "lovely," "awful," "splendid," or " perfectly immense " : find 
some other adjective that will express your meaning exactly, and 
remember that it is no disgrace to speak good English everywhere. 

EXERCISE 72. 
1. Substitute for the italicized w T ords suitable descriptive 
expressions. 

1. Nice weather ; a nice picture; nice clothes; a nice man; & nice 
lecture; a race ride; nice music ; a nice plan. 2. An awful pen ; awful 
good ; awfully pretty ; awfully dear ; a icfully slow 7 . 3. Splendid pudding ; 



66 CHOICE OF WORDS. 

splendid entertainment ; a perfectly splendid sermon. 4. This sidewalk 
is just too lovely for anything. 5. The delay was disgusting. 6. What 
& pretty steamship! 7. Those shoes are an immense fit. 8. I /us£ 
adore caramels. 9. I hate long stories. 10. The coffee seems mighty 
weak. 11. What a horrid mistake 1 12. A perfectly lovely salad. 

2. Use correctly in sentences : nice, awful, horrid, splendid, 
lovely, disgusting. 

97. Wrong Order of Words. Arrange the parts of a 
sentence so that it may convey as clearly as possible just the 
meaning intended. 

EXERCISE 73. 

Try to improve the arrangement of the words in the following- 
expressions, and explain why changes are needed. 

1. For sale : soft men's hats, black ladies' gloves, and leggings for 
children with or without feet. 2. "We came very near being killed 
more than once. 3. He bought a new pair of gloves. 4. Carpets and 
clothes beaten and washed. 5. All rivers are not so swift. 6. Solve 
the next example to the end but one. 7. I should like to visit you 
very much. 8. I only recite in the morning. 9. I heard all you said 
very distinctly. 10. A fine view was obtained from the upper story 
of Xiagara Falls. 11. Mrs. James only has one child. 12. I have 
been trying to have my watch repaired every day this week. 13. I 
never expect to be any taller than I am now. 14. Try to always put 
adverbs in their proper place. 

98. Double Meaning. Construct sentences so as to 
avoid all ambiguous statements. 

EXERCISE 74. 

Reconstruct each of these sentences so that it shall have only one 
meaning : — 

1. Ask how old Mrs. Jones is. 2. What I want is common sense. 
3. The judge told the lawyer that lie was not an authority. 4. I have 
not heard from one of my friends. 5. She has given me more than 
you. 6. My friend's father died while he was in Europe. 7. I 
promised her mother that I would call upon her sister. 



SYNONYMS. 



67 



B. SYNONYMS. 

99. We often find several words nearly alike in mean- 
ing, each one of which we must learn to use in its proper 
place. Such words are called Synonyms. Thus : — 

Ancient, old, aged, elderly, antiquated, are synonyms, for, in a 
general way, they have the same meaning; but we say "ancient 
customs," " old trees," " aged or elderly persons," " antiquated 
fashions." 



100. Synonyms are words that have the same or nearly the 
same meaning. 

EXERCISE 75. 

1. Separate the following words into five groups, each containing 
five synonyms. 

2. Use the words of each group in expressions that will illustrate 
their meaning. Thus : — 

"A plot to rob the bank"; "the arrangement of words"; "a scheme for raising 
money " ; "a conspiracy to assassinate the king." 

plot | misfortune 

diminish scheme 

liberal decrease 

splendid generous 

mishap gorgeous 

EXERCISE 76. 

1. Find at least one or two synonyms for each of these words: — 
Busy ; bold ; honest ; counterfeit ; obscure ; barren ; appease ; cheer- 
ful; dead; larceny; defeat; certain; collect; death; frighten; cen- 
sure; frank; famous; obstinate; spacious. 

2. Give one or two words that are opposite in meaning to each 
of the foregoing. 

EXERCISE 77. 
Read each phrase, substituting synonyms for the italicized words. 
1. Insipid fruit. 2. Gnarled oaks. 3. Relentless foes. 4. Chap- 



grand 


beautiful 


reduce 


calamity 


superb 


free 


plan 


disaster 


magnificent 


abate 


conspiracy 


catastrophe 


lavish 


lessen 


arrangement 



68 CHOICE OF WORDS. 

lets of flowers. 5. Sepulchres of kings. 6. Auspicious omens. 7. Debt- 
ors' assets. 8. Martial music. 9. Voluntary offering. 10. A glutton- 
o us fellow. 11. Waning power, 12. Obsequies of a ruler. 13. Im- 
prudent methods. 14. Infallible signs. 15. Indelible impressions. 
10. Merchants' liabilities. 17. Raleigh's explorations. 18. Frugal 
habits. 19. Brutal actions. 20. Benevolent feelings. 

EXERCISE 78. 
What is the difference between — 

1. a lazy boy and an idle boy; 

2. a large man and a great man ; 

3. a large gift and a generous gift; 

4. what one wants and what one needs; 

5. he hopes and he expects; 

6. & trade and an occupation ; 

7. what is fragrant and what is odorous; 

8. peeling fruit and paring fruit ; 

9. a sf/-ee£ and a road; 

10. an a/?an/ man and a mac/ man. 

EXERCISE 79. 

Study the words in each of the following pairs till you think that 
you understand the meaning of them. Then use each of the words 
so as to show that you can discriminate between them. 

1. That is healthful which gives health ; that is healthy which has 
health. 

2. To remember is to call to mind readily; to recollect is 
to recall with effort. "We can sometimes recollect what we do not 
remember. 

3. Habit is the result of custom. What is customary soon grows 
to be habitual. 

4. A man's reputation depends on what he appears to be ; his char- 
acter is what he really is. 

5. Brave and courageous men do their duly even though suffering 
from fear or disapproval; bold and reckless men neither fear nor 
care. 



SYNONYMS. 



69 



6. Crimes are offences against law ; sins are offences against the 
right. 

7. We convince a man by argument ; we persuade him by advice 
and entreaty. 

EXERCISE 80. 
Explain the difference in meaning between the words of each 
pair. Thus : — 

Do not say " I guess so " if you know enough about the subject to say " I think so " 
or "I presume so " or " I suppose so." 

Mountains and clouds are high ; masts and trees are tall. 



1. high, tall; 

2. glance, look ; 

3. tomb, grave ; 



4. silent, quiet ; 

5. economical, stingy; 

6. hear, understand ; 



7. pardon, forgive ; 

8. kill, murder ; 

9. see, notice. 



EXERCISE 81. 
Discriminate between the words in each pair, and use them in 

sentences. 



1. love, like; 

2. export, transport ; 

3. follow, pursue ; 



4. bring, fetch ; 

5. bear, carry ; 

6. discover, invent ; 



7. believe, think; 

8. frugal, miserly; 

9. education, learning. 



EXERCISE 82. 
Answer these questions in complete sentences, whether you use 
synonyms or not : — 

1. Why is food called nutritious ? palatable ? indigestible ? 

2. Why is a man called mercenary ? magnanimous ? 

3. What is the difference between an art and a science ? 

4. Explain why an occurrence is called annual ? semi-annual ? 
biennial? triennial? centennial 1 ? bi-centennial ? 

5. What is a sedentary occupation? a lucrative one? 

6. What is official information? an officious person? 

7. Tell how a speech,, a lecture, a sermon, an oration, and a eulogy 
differ from one another. 

8. What is it for one to be lenient? diffident? 

9. What is a loquacious man? a taciturn man? 

10. When is one's conduct exemplary? decorous? despicable? noble? 
immoral ? vicious ? 



70 CHOICE OF WORDS. 

EXERCISE 83. 

Answer these questions thus : — 

" A just decision is one that is fair to both parties." 

" Authentic reports are such as come from a reliable source." 

1. What is a — 

1. just decision? 2. salubrious climate? 3. man of veracity? 
4. veracious statement? 5. voracious animal? 6. majority of five? 
7. minority of three? 8. ambiguous remark? 9. mortal wound? 10. plu- 
rality of seven ? 

2. What are — 

1. sanguinary battles? 2. pugnacious people? 3. contemporaneous 
events? 4. tyrannical rulers? 5. arbitrary rules? 6. maritime coun- 
tries? 7. hospitable persons? 8. authentic reports ? 9. junior partners V 

10. candid views? 

EXERCISE 84. 

Explain clearly what it is to — 

1. mortgage a farm. 2. deed the land. 3. resign an office. 4. counsel 
delay. 5. execute the laws. 6. commute a sentence. 7. read respon- 
sively. 8. ask for clemency. 9. go with alacrity. 10. excavate a cellar. 

11. fumigate a house. 12. embezzle money. 13. prove inefficient. 
14. /W#n sickness. 15. retract a statement. 16. foreclose a mortgage. 
17. endorse a note. 18. condone a crime. 19. acquit a prisoner. 
20. exterminate a tribe. 

EXERCISE 85. 

Substitute single words for the italicized expressions. 

1. I went of my own accord. 2. Old soldiers. 3. It can lie done 
without difficulty. 4. Go to that place \ without a moment '* delay. 5. Men 
of wisdom interpret the laws of nature. 6. A man without money and 
without friends. 7. The statement cannot be denied. 8. My labors are 
o/ no utility. !). Were the proceedings according to law? 10. We 
were tee* to $g gHn. 11. A man worthy of esteem. 12. Facts nof to 6c 
disputed. 13. A river that cannot be forded. 14. An attack fAat cou/d 
no£ 6e resisted. 15. He saw several mummies //W wen found in Egypt. 
16. With a rapidity $a< cannot h more],-, ,/. 



VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 71 



EXERCISE 86. 

Substitute words or expressions as synonyms for the italicized 
words. 

1. Prepare your lessons. 2. Honor y 'our parents. 3. The to/ was 
caught. 4. He spoke excitedly. 5. Peacefully slept the weary children. 
6. A furious gale was raging. 7. A few dilapidated old buildings still 
stand in the deserted hamlet. 8. We urged his going. 9. The Nile 
overflows once a year. 10. ~hhich. fatigued we reached the end of our 
journey. 11. Farming is a pleasant occupation. 12. There is no cause 
sacred enough to justify a violation of the truth. 13. We resolved to 
make the attempt in spate of all difficulties. 14. The prisoners were 
condemned and executed. 

EXERCISE 87. 

Substitute sentences of equivalent meaning. 

1. The opposing forces stood in Saftte arm?/. 2. The supply con- 
stantly increases. 3. Plants are the habitations of insects. 4. They 
traversed the fo/fy mountains that surround this beautiful region. 

5. The majority of mankind earn their livelihood by hard luork. 6. The 
army was animated by the spirit of its leader. 7. Sailors encounter 
constant perils. 8. The intelligence was brought by a courier. 9. Our 
liberties were not secured without a struggle. 

EXERCISE 88. 

Substitute simpler or more appropriate expressions for those that 
are italicized. 

1. He resides in an elegant mansion. 2. The barn was consumed by 
the devouring element. 3. We attended divine services. 4. He was cut 
down by the scythe of Time. 5. She was ushered into existence in Maine. 

6. The streams are bound by winter's icy chain. 7. The ice broke, and 
the boy was launched into eternity. 8. We were conveyed to the dearest 
spot on earth in an express wagon. 9. Crowds congregated to witness 
the race. 10. Divest yourself of your outer habiliments, and stay with 
us. 11. There were some gorgeously apparelled members of the gentler 
sex present. 12. Immediately upon our establishment in the hostelry we 
partook of a sumptuous repast. 



CHAPTER IX. 

PARAPHRASING. 

101. We have learned that there are right ways and 

wrong ways of saying what we mean, but we know thai 
in telling a story no two persons would use precisely the 
same words and expressions, though the language of both 
might be excellent. 

Almost any idea can be well expressed in various ways. 
Thus : — 



(3) My dress is as yellow as gold. 

(4) My dress is of a golden hue. 



(1) My gown is golden yellow. 

(2) In color my gown resembles 

gold. 
So instead of (1) " It is a dark day," we may write — 



(2) The sky is overcast. 

(3) A vast cloud obscures the sun. 

(4) What gloomy weather ! 



(5) There isn't a ray of sunshine. 

(6) A dark day this. 

(7) Isn't this a cheerless day? 



EXERCISE 89. 

Change the following sentences in as many ways as you can, trying 
to express the thought fully and accurately in different language. 
Thus: — 

" He speaks the truth." He tells no lies. He is truthful. He is a man of his word. 

1. He speaks the truth. 2. He is patriotic. 3. He is faithful. 
4. This book interests me. 5. Do I trouble you? 6. He neglects 
his business. 7. It is not needed. 8. The thief does not fear pun- 
ishment. 9. These birds migrate. 10. The earth was first circum- 
navigated by one of Magellan's ships. 11. My impression differs from 
yours. 12. Do not squander your time. 13. Never put off till to- 



VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 78 

morrow what ought to be done to-day. 14. Our doubts were pres- 
ently dispelled. 15. Robert Fulton, who invented the steamboat, 
died prematurely from poverty and toil. 16. iSTo man is entirely free 
from foibles. 17. " Take Time by the forelock ; he is bald behind." 

102. When we thoroughly change the form in which a 
thought has been expressed, without much changing the 
meaning, we make a Paraphrase. 

103. Practice in paraphrasing should enable us to vary 
our forms of expression, to speak with greater precision, 
to choose the best form of all, and to extend our knowl- 
edge of words and of their meanings. 

EXERCISE 90. 

1. Write each sentence five times, varying the order of words. 

1. Prepare, my friends, in time of peace for war. 

2. Soon a rocky mass mixed with snow came rattling down. 

3. Nobody but you, I think, was here after the war. 

4. "Your hand," cried the girl suddenly, as her foot slipped. 

2. Change and condense into four sentences, — then into three: 
(1) I was in a swamp. The year was 1875. It was May. I was 

lost. (2) The water was deep. It was cold. Dead trees filled it. 
My clothes were torn. Brambles caused it.. (3) I wandered long. 
Then the ground was drier. The light increased. I was out. 

Transformation of Poetry into Prose. 

104. One may acquire skill in the use of language by 
crying to turn poetry into prose. 

Poetry is noticeably different from prose ; for, — 
(1) It has meter and rhythm 1 and rhymes; 

1 To the Teacher. The meaning of rhythm, or the division of verse into lines, couplets, 
stanzas, etc., and that of meter, or the regular arrangement of accented and unaccented 
syllables, should be clearly exemplified to the class at the outset. 



74 PARAPHBASQTG. 

(2) The order of the words is often inverted; 

(3) Many of its words and phrases are not used in prose; 

(4) It often contains many figurative expressions and 
peculiar constructions. 

105. In changing poetry to prose, we are not to change 
the meaning : we are rather to express the ideas, as well 
as we can, in the simple, straightforward language of prose 
or of conversation. 

To do this, we must generally, — 

(1) Change the order of the tvords. Thus : — 

" Bent is his head with age, and red his tearful eye," becomes, — 
His head is bent with age, and his eyes are red with weeping. 

(2) Substitute ptrosaic for poetic ivords. As — 

Often for oft, evening for eve, against for 'gainst, etc. 

(3) Conceal the rhymes and the meter or measured step 
of the words, either by re-arrangement or by the use of 
synonyms. Thus : — 

"A man he was to all the country dear, 
And passing rich with forty pounds a year," becomes. — 

He was a man whom everybody loved, and his annual income of 
forty pounds made him surpassingly rich. 

(4) Sometimes we must form new sentences with changes 
in punctuation. 

EXERCISE 91. 

Make the order of -words in the following selections the same that 
it would be in prose, and conceal all the rhymes: — 

1. "Few and short were the prayers they said." 

2. "There purple grows the primrose pale." 

3. " The highest meed of praise he well deserves." 



TRANSFORMATION OF POETRY INTO PROSE. lb 

4. "From labor health, from health contentment springs." 

5. " ' I've lost a day,' — the prince who nobly cried, 

Had been an emperor without his crown." 

6. " That mercy I to others show, 

That mercy show to me." 

7. " Of joys departed 

Not to return, how painful the remembrance." 

8. " Vessels large may venture more, 

But little boats should keep near shore." 

9. " By fairy hands their knell is rung ; 

By forms unseen their dirge is sung." 

10. " Stone walls do not a prison make, 

Nor iron bars a cage." 

11. "For 'tis a truth well known to most, 

That whatsoever thing is lost, 
We seek it, ere it comes to light, 
In every cranny but the right." 

EXERCISE 92. 

Transform the following selections so as to make them sound like 
ordinary prose : — 

1. " He is not poor that little hath, but he that much desires." 

2. " Of all wit's uses the main one 

Is to live well with who has none." 

3. " What you keep by you, you may change and mend, 

But words once spoke can never be recalled." 

4. " Bear through sorrow, wrong, and ruth, 

In thy heart the dew of youth, 
On thy lips the smile of truth." 

5. " Sweet is the pleasure itself cannot spoil ! 

Is not true leisure one with true toil ? " 

6. " Three poets in three distant ages born, 

Greece, Italy, and England did adorn : 

The first in gracefulness of thought surpassed ; 

The next in majesty; in both, the last." 



7»J PARAPHRASING. 

EXERCISE 93. 
Transform the following into prose : try to conceal the meter. 

1. " I watch the mowers as they go 

Through the tall grass, a white-sleewd row; 
With even stroke their scythes they swing, 
In tune their merry whetstones ring." 

2. " In the country, on every side, 

Where far and wide, 

Like a leopard's tawny and spotted hide, 

Stretches the plain, 

To the dry grass and the drier grain 

How welcome is the rain ! " 

3. " I saw a farmer plow his land, who never came to sow t ; 

I saw a student filled with truth, to practice never go ; 
In land or mind I never saw the ripened harvest grow." 

4. " Do thou thy w T ork ; it shall succeed 

In thine or in another's day ; 
And if denied the victor's meed, 

Thou shalt not miss the toiler's pay." 

EXERCISE 94. 
Paraphrase the following selections : — 

1. " Let us then be up and doing, with a heart for any fate." 

2. " To swear is neither brave, polite, nor w r ise." 

3. " A thing of beauty is a joy forever." 

4. " How t blessings brighten as they take their flight." 

5. " Into each life some rain must fall." 

6. " Xever make your ear the grave of another's good name." 

7. " Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and a few 
are to be chewed and digested." 

8. " The rank is but the guinea's stamp, 

The man's the gold for all that ! " 
0. " The bravest trophy ever man obtained 
Is that which o'er himself is gained." 
10. " If little labor, little are our gains ; 

Man's fortunes are according to his pains." 



CHAPTER X. 

THE SENTENCE: KINDS. 
[Review §§ 5-7.] 

106. When we converse with one another, or write 
letters to our friends, we first have thoughts in our own 
minds, and then we show to others what they are by the 
words that we use ; so that what we say depends on what 
we think. 

EXERCISE 95. 

1. Think of something yon did yesterday, and tell what it was, 

2. .Mention three things that happened in your last vacation. 

3. What questions might a stranger ask in a city? 

4. Ask two questions about your next vacation. 

5. Say three things that you are asked to do by your teacher. 

6. How would you ask for a book ? 

107. Each word differs from almost every other word 
in its meaning or in its use, and we select those best 
suited to express our thoughts. 

If we were to go into the woods together, we might say, — 

1. I should like to come here every day. 
.2. This path leads to the cliff. 

3. Do the birds sing in the rain? 

4. Are there any violets there? 

5. Listen to the brook. 

6. Come and sit under this tree. 



78 KINDS OF SENTEN< 

On a ship we should have very different thoughts, and we might 
say, — 

1. The water looks very green. 

2. I am very fond of sailing. 

3. What makes the clouds seem so low? 

4. Wouldn't you like to see an iceberg? 

5. Come out on the quarter-deck. 

6. See that steamer in the distance. 

1 08. In each of these examples the words are so arranged 
that they have a definite meaning, and taken together they 
form what is called a sentence. Let us see for what pur- 
pose each of these sentences is used. 

Read the first two sentences in each group. In these 
we say what we knoiv or believe. 

Read sentences 3 and 4. In these we do not say that 
anything does or is so and so, we only ask about it; and 
in sentences 5 and 6 we request or order something to be 
done. 

EXERCISE 96. 

1. Write two questions that might be asked after a snow-storm. 
Two commands that might be given. Two statements that might be 
made. 

2. "Write six more as if you were on a railway train. 

100. Any other sentences we could make would do one 
of these three things, — assert, ask, or order. Hence we 
say that — 

Sentences are complete assertions, questions, or commands. 

EXERCISE 97. 

1. Make a perfect copy of the twelve sentences given in § 107. 

2. What is the meaning of "asserl "? 

3. Make assertions in answer to the four question*. 



THE SENTENCE: KINDS. 79 

4. Make replies to the four requests. 

5. Change the four assertions to questionSc 

HO. When we speak and when we write we put our 
words together into sentences of one kind or another. If 
we use only single words, such as - — 

leads, like, are, birds, brook, path, 
we do not really say anything; and if anybody speaks 
them, we can only wonder, "Who leads?" "Who like?" 
6i What are ? " " What about birds, brook, path, etc. ? " 

111. The same is true of every group of words that is 
not a sentence, even though the words may be arranged 
so as to have some meaning. For example : — 

the clouds. fond of sailing, 

under this tree. looks green, 

school of fishes. leads to the castle, 

through the valley. to the brook, 

green -with leaves. has brought. 

If we should read these expressions backwards, they 
would have no meaning at all ; as they are, they might 
form parts of sentences : but they are not sentences, and 
they do not give any information, for they do not form 
statements, questions, or commands. 

EXERCISE 98. 

1. Think about each of these groups of words, and then tell whether 
it is a complete sentence or only part of one. Give your reason 
thus : — 

" G-reen with leaves " is not a sentence, because it does not form a statement, ques- 
tion, or command. 

1. A fine October morning. I 5. None are brown. 

2. The leaves are red and green. 6. The trees in the swamps. 

3. And some yellow. 7. Very few flowers remain. 

4. Here are some purplish ones. 8. All along the road to the pond. 



80 



KINDS OF SENTENCES. 



9. Found twenty dead trees. 

10. Some were girdled by mice. 

11. Dry and brittle as pipe-stems. 

12. We set them on fire. 

13. O such a blaze ! 

14. The smoke rilled the air. 

15. A strong wind from the north- 

west. 



16. Let us try to find some nuts. 

17. Are there any chestnut-trees 

in the grove? 

18. Very few. 

19. Bring your basket to-morrow. 

20. If it rains. 

21. Three gray squirrels in a hol- 

low tree. 



2. Change those of the preceding groups that are only parts of 
sentences, into complete sentences by using additional words. 

3. Tell in your own words what they are all about, as if you were 
telling a story. 

112. We have seen that every sentence either asserts or 
asks or orders. Hence we say that — 

There are three kinds of sentences. We call them 
assertive, interrogative, and imperative. 

113. An Assertive Sentence states a fact or an opinion. 1 

As : You speak correctly. You will learu to speak correctly. 

114. An Interrogative Sentence asks a question. 2 

As : Do I speak correctly? 

115. An Imperative Sentence giyes a command, makes a re- 
quest, or expresses a wish. 2 

As : Speak correctly. Please teach me to speak correctly. 

EXERCISE 99. 

1. After reading each of these sentences, tell whether it is asser- 
tive, interrogative, or imperative. Give your reason thus : — 

«' Cheer up " is an imperative sentence, because it gives a command. 



* The use of suppositions, as, " If he come," is confined to clauses. 
8 "Without being a statement. 



THE SENTENCE : KINDS. 



81 



1. Have you ever heard of Aus- 

tralia? 

2. That's a strange question. Of 

course I have. 

3. Do not be provoked. 

4. I am going there next month. 

5. Should you like to be my com- 

panion ? 

6. Indeed I should. 



7. Do you really mean it ? 

8. Tell me. 

9. How long should we stay ? 

10. Think how I should enjoy it! 

11. You will take me. 

12. Won't you say yes? 

13. 1 must go ! 

14. Stop! 

15. Remember how far it is. 



2. Listen to the reading of sentences by your teacher, and tell the 
kind of each as you hear it. 

3. Classify the sentences in any of the subsequent exercises in 
this book. 

4. What does "interrogative" mean? 

116. Exclamations. Sentences of any of these classes 
may also be exclamatory ; that is, they may also express 
excitement, surprise, or impatience. For example : — 

Assertive: 'Tis false! There he goes! 

Interrogative : Who would be afraid ! 
Imperative : Stop it ! Keep your courage up ! 



EXERCISE 100. 

1. Which of the sentences in Es. 99 are also exclamatory ? 

2. What kind of sentence is each of these ? 



1. Hark! 

2. Who cares ! 

3. Do come here ! 

4. We shall be so happy ! 



5. House, ye Romans ! 

6. May Heaven bless you ! 

7. W T hat do you say, you rascal ! 

8. Who would have believed it ! 



117. Exclamations like — 

How many colors the sunset shows! 

What a long ride it would be to the moon ! 

seem to form a new class ; but they are really shortened forms of command sentences, 
— See how many colors, etc. Think what a long ride, etc. 
Exclamations of this kind always begin with Jioiv or tvhat. 



82 PUNCTUATION. 

118. Punctuation. The following rules show us how 
to begin and end our sentences : — 

119. Every sentence must begin with a capital letter. 

120. An assertive or an imperative sentence must be fol- 
lowed by a period [.]. 

121. An interrogative sentence must be followed by a ques- 
tion-mark [.']. 

122. But a sentence of any sort that is also exclamatory, should 
be followed by an exclamation-poiut [!] . 

EXERCISE 101. 
Copy these sentences, using capitals and marks of punctuation 
where they belong : — 

there was a storm of sleet and snow yesterday the night was very 
cold is the road on the hill smooth enough for coasting bring your 
sleds we will go to see let the wind blow are you well protected 
shall we run to keep warm here we are at last what do you think 
of this couldn't I steer the double-runner see us go to the bridge 
across the creek give us a good start look out for the old stump 
this is a fine coast we came down in less than half a minute shall 
we try it again 

EXERCISE 102. 

1. Write one assertive sentence about coal ; one about charcoal ; 
and one about coke. 

2. Write an interrogative sentence about wool, cotton, or flax-, 
using your teacher's name. 

3. Write an imperative sentence addressed to a well-trained dog. 
To a stage-driver. To an army. 

4. State a fact about the telescope. 

5. Write a question to a friend about his health. 

6. Make an order asking the grocer \>> Bend y<>u something. 

7. Write three assertive sentences about photographs. 

8. Make an assertion about London. 

9. Change this assertion to a question. 



CHAPTER XI. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 
A. THE SUBJECT. 

123. Every assertive sentence must of course be an 
assertion about something. Whenever we make a state- 
ment, we say that something is or does so and so. 

EXERCISE i03. 

Read each sentence, and say what the statement is about. 



1. Embers glow. 

2. Opals gleam. 

3. Fire-flies glint. 

4. Gold glitters. 



5. Dewdrops glisten. 

6. Sunsets flame. 

7. Lamps flare. 

8. Lightning flashes. 



9. Candles flicker. 

10. Torches blaze. 

11. Diamonds sparkle. 

12. Stars twinkle. 



124. The part of the sentence that signifies what we 
of is called the subject. Thus, in the sentence — 



Bees hum, 
we speak of bees, and the word bees is the subject. 

EXERCISE 104. 
What is the subject in the following sentences? Give your reason 
thus : — 

"Horses neigh." In this sentence the word " horses " is the subject, because it 
represents that about "which something is said. 



1. Sparrows chirp. 

2. Chickens peep. 

3. Cocks crow. 



4. Owls screech. 

5. Crows caw. 

6. Larks sing. 



7. Doves coo. 

8. Geese cackle. 

9. Hens cluck. 



84 



THE PREDICATE. 



125. In the following sentences the same statement is made about 
four different things : — 

Butterflies find honey in flowers. 

Honey-bees find honey in flowers. 

Humming-birds find honey in flowers. 

Burly bumble-bees find honey in flowers. 

Read the subject of each one, and tell how many words are used 
in forming it. 

EXERCISE 105. 

What is the whole subject in each sentence ? Give your reason 
thus : — 

"The deep blue sea flows round the world." In this sentence the words "The 
deep blue sea " are the subject, for they represent that of which something is said. 



1. The ocean is bitter and salt. 

2. The wind was dying away. 

3. Large and small fishes came to 

the surface to breathe. 

4. Several whales w r ere spouting. 

5. Seven icebergs were drifting 

past. 

6. What sign of life was there ? 



7. A polar bear could be seen 

amidst the ice and snow. 

8. The strongest ships are often 

crushed in the ice-floes. 

9. Whale-fishing is a dangerous 

occupation. 
10. D is the first letter of danger 
and of death. 



12G. The Subject represents that about which something is 
said. 



E. THE PREDICATE. 

127. In every assertive sentence something is said about 
one thing or another. 

EXERCISE 106. 
What is said of the objects named in each of these sentences? 



1. 


Clouds float. 


5. 


Hail rattles. 


9. 


Breakers roar. 


2. 


Rain falls. 


G. 


Water splashes. 


10. 


Billows roll. 


3. 


Sleet drives. 


7. 


Wind blows. 


11. 


Oceans surge. 


4. 


Snow drifts. 


8. 


Waves break. 


12. 


Tides flow. 



SUBJECT AKD PREDICATE. 85 

128. This part that states, declares, or asserts, is called 
the predicate. Thus, in the sentence — 
Frogs croak, 

the word croak is the predicate, because it stands for what 
we say about frogs. 

EXERCISE 107. 

What is the predicate in these sentences? Give your reason 
thus : — 

"Lions roar." In this sentence "roar" is the predicate, because it is used to say 
something aboi#t "lions." 



1. Donkeys bray. 

2. Bears growl. 

3. Wolves howl. 



4. Dogs bark. 

5. Lambs bleat. 

6. Monkeys chatter. 



7. The sea is rough. 

8. The sails are rent, 

9. We drop anchor. 



129. In the following sentences four different statements are made 
about the same thing : — 

Icebergs melt slowly. 
Icebergs come from the polar regions. 
Icebergs drift with the polar currents. 
Icebergs are very dangerous to commerce. 

Melt slowly in the first is the predicate, because it represents 
what is asserted of icebergs. 

Read the predicates of the other three sentences, and observe that 
they consist of several words. 

EXERCISE 108. 

1. What is the entire predicate in each sentence? Give your 
reason thus : — 

" The night was nearly spent." Here the words " was nearly spent " are the predi- 
cate, because they sbow what is said about " the night." 



1. All nature was asleep. 

2. Every leaf was still. 

3. The dew was sparkling. 



4. The sun had just appeared. 

5. Robins and bluebirds began to 

nutter about. 



86 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 



(3. Gray smoke curled up from the 
chimneys. 

7. The stage-horn .sounded in the 
distance. 



8. A dusty drover was hurrying 
some sheep along the road. 

!). Everything seemed to catch the 
spirit of the morning. 



2. Copy the sentences in Ex. 105. and draw a vertical line between 
the subject and the predicate, thus : — 

The earth | moves round the sun. 
130. The Predicate represents what is said about something. 



C. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE COMBINED. 

131. We have found that every assertive sentence has 
two necessary parts, — the subject, representing that about 
which the assertion is made, and the predicate, signifying 
what is asserted of the subject. 

Two words therefore may make a sentence. 

Interrogative and imperative sentences might be divided in the 
same way, but we study assertive sentences first because they are 
easier and more common. 





EXERCISE 109. 




1. Make predicates for each of these subjects, thus : — 


" Eyes see," — and so on. 




eyes 
ears 
noses 


mouths 

teeth 

tongues 


hands 

feet 

fingers 


wings 
fins 

tails 


2. Make subjects for each of these predicates, th 


is : — 


" Lead sinks," — and so on. 




sinks 
floats 
freezes 


drifts 

swim 
melts 


drive 
wade 

row 


sail 
ripple 

• lash 



SUBJECT AKD PREDICATE COMBINED. 



87 



EXERCISE 110. 

Make sentences, using one of these words as subject and one as 
predicate : — 



fishes 


frogs 


men 


girls 


monkeys 


crawl 


walk 


trot 


leap 


chatter 


worms 


birds 


boys 


horses 


ships 


% 


float 


swim 


run 


dance 



132. We generally require more than one word to show 

what we wish to speak of. Thus, we may wish to say 

that — 

Trees grow, 

meaning trees in general ; but if we* wish to speak more 
definitely, we say, — 

Those trees | grow, or 
Those tall trees | grow, or 
Those tall trees with arching branches | grow. 

So, too, generally more than one word is needed to ex- 
press what we wish to say about anything. Thus, we 
may say, — 

The trees | grow, or 
The trees | grow rapidly, or 
The trees | grow rapidly this year, or 
. The trees | grow rapidly this year without care. 

Hence the subject and the predicate may each consist of 
several words. 

EXERCISE III. 
Write predicates of more than one word for these subjects ; that 
is, say something so as to make an assertive sentence : — 

9. The West Indies 



1. Stars 

2. The sun 

3. The moon 

4. Humming-birds 



5. Margaret 

6. Alfred 

7. Honesty 

8. Kindness 



10. A looking-glass 

11. My photograph 

12. Oil-paintings 



88 



SUBJECT AXD PREDICATE. 



13. Peacocks 
11. Squirrels 
15. Helen 



16. Anger 

17. The United States 

18. The Andes 



19. Drops of water 

20. A boat od the lake 

21. Huge va 



EXERCISE 112. 
Write subjects of more than one word for these predicates: — 



1. are chirping. 

2. are buzzing. 

3. are croaking. 

4. is the President of the United 

States. 

5. was a great general. 

6. were an ancient people. 

7. shade the streets. 

8. shade the windows. 

9. shade the women's faces. 
10. grow in the conservatory. 



11. laid the wall. 

12. built the house. 

13. made the furniture. 

1 1. are found in the woods. 

15. float in with the tide. 

16. live upon flesh. 

17. are all used for food. 

18. are found in menageries. 

19. is a beautiful poem. 

20. contained the advertisement. 

21. was very neatly written. 



D. ESSENTIAL SUBJECT AXD PREDICATE. 

133. If we think about the sentences we use, we see 
that the subject part is very different from the predicate 
part. 

EXERCISE 113. 
"Which of these expressions might be used as predicates ? 



1. the smoke 

2. over the valley 

3. disappea 
1. poisonou> 



5. covers the ground 

6. morning mists 

7. may settle 

S. was scattered 



9. a delicate perfume 

10. will evaporate 

11. smells very sweet 

12. of a furnace 



134. Some of our words, as — 

John, eagles, dewdrops, courage, childhood, 
are names of things, and, like him, I, you, etc., they cannot be used to 
state or assert. But we see at once lhat asserting words, like — 

catches, soar, glisten, strengthens, hastens, 
are very different, and that we do not use them as subjects. 



ESSENTIAL SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 



EXERCISE 114. 

Which of these words are names of things ? 
be used to assert ? 



Which of them can 



raked 


grass 


pruned 


wealth 


fails 


vines 


awoke 


seed 


buys 


believes 


fields 


wept 


goods 


lawn . 


poverty- 


sells 


mowed 


plowed 


slept 


succeeds 



135. The complete subject of a sentence must always 
contain one word that serves as a name for what we speak 
of. The most of such words are called nouns. So the 
complete predicate must always contain an assertive word 
called a verb. 

These are the necessary or essential parts of every sub- 
ject and predicate, no matter how long they happen to be. 

Thus, in the sentence : — 

The white snow | falls upon the fields, 
the complete subject is — The white snow ; but of these three •words 
the necessary or essential one is snow, for it names what we speak of 
more than either of the other words does. We call it the essential 
subject 

So in the complete predicate, falls upon the fields, the essential 
word is falls ; for it is the least that will make an assertion, and 
there would be no assertion without it. Hence, it is the essential 
predicate. 

EXERCISE 115. 

Lengthen each of these bare sentences by adding words to the 
essential subject and to the essential predicate, so as to make a fuller 
and more definite statement. Thus : — 

Serious trouble among Meads | often arises from trifliug 



" Trouble | arises.' 
causes. 

1. ivies grew 

2. ships sail 

3. pictures hang 



4. carpenter built 

5. house stood 

6. gale broke 



7. walls fell 

8. windows looked 

9. room contained 



90 ESSENTIAL SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

EXERCISE 116. 

1. In these sentences what is the who]*' or complete subject? 

2. Find the bare or essential subject : that is, the one word that 
names what the assertion is about. 

1. Our journey soon begins. 2. The last day has come. 3. Many 
3'ears of happiness are gone. 4. All the future is uncertain. 5. A cold, 
bleak wind is bloAving. 6. Travelling by night seems dreary. 7. The 
road to town is rough and steep. 8. For a week no friends will greet us. 

EXERCISE 117. 

1. In these sentences what is the complete predicate? 

2. Find also the bare or essential predicate ; that is, find the 
asserting word. 

1. The storm passed this side of the mountains. 2. Our prospects 
brightened at once. 3. We hoped for the best. 4. Time decides all 
questions. 5. Something always happens unexpectedly. 6. The sur- 
prise gives us courage. 7. The morning finds our journey ended. 
8. Who cares for wintry storms? 

EXERCISE 118. 
Write these sentences; separate the principal parts by a vertical 
line; draw a wavy line under the essential subject, and a straight 
line under the verb, or essential predicate, thus : — 

The leaves of this tree | fall every autumn. 

1. The southern forests yield the largest timber. 2. The trunks of 
some trees measure several feet in diameter. 3. The elms resemble 
human beings. 4. Their arching tops almost speak to us. 5. Whispers 
come from groves of pine. 6. Their needle-like leaves make a luxuri- 
ous carpet. 7. The sturdy oak stands for stability and strength. 
8. The wood of this tree serves many useful purposes. 9. The lifetime 
of a tree depends in part on its surroundings. 10. A century in the 
forest makes a venerable giant. 11. Earth with her thousand voices 
praises God. 12. Bad habits gather by unseen degrees. 13. The 
paths of glory lead but to the grave. 14. The broken soldier talked 
the night away. 15. The king unstrung his chain of gold. 10. Such 
gallant act deserves a meed of praise. 



CHAPTER XII. 

KINDS OF WORDS. 

136. Since we have studied the two most important 
ways of using words, we now know what the two prin- 
cipal kinds are. 

Words used to assert, even if they have very different 
meanings, are all classed together as verbs ; and when we 
speak of nouns we always mean words that can be used as 
names. 

So, too, all other words are divided into classes accord- 
ing to the way we use them in making sentences. Hence 
we say that — 

137. Words are divided into kinds or classes according to their 
use in sentences. 

EXERCISE 119. 

1. Write seven words that can be used as names. 

2. Use each one with other words in making a sentence. 

3. Write seven that can be used to assert, and make sentences 
with them. 

4. Tell how each of the words in Ex. 114 may be used. 



L NOUNS. 



EXERCISE 120. 

1. Mention five kinds of birds ; of fur-bearing animals. 

2. Name five things you have seen in a store ; at a fair. 



92 KINDS OF WORDS. 

3. Name five things to be seen at the seaside, or by a river. Name 
five to be seen — 

On a ship. Among mountains. On a farm. In a mil]. 

4. Name several things to be heard — 

On the street. When travelling. In church. In the night. 

5. What are four things that make — 

A good scholar? A good soldier ? ■ A boy's character ? A poor 
scholar ? 

138. About half the words in our language are alike in 
one respect; that is, they are names of things, and are 
therefore called Nouns. 

EXERCISE 121. 

1. Examine these sentences carefully, and mention every name or 
noun that you find : — 



1. The garden is brilliant with 

daffodils and tulips. 

2. Their beauty depends much 

upon their colors. 
8. This brook is full of fine trout. 

4. "Poor Richard" was born in 

Boston. 

5. Hear the jingle of the sleigh- 

bells. 

6. A cry of joy rings through the 

laud. 

7. How delicate the perfume is ! 

2. Which of the nouns denote something that has weight? 



8. The merry shouts of children 

fill the air. 
0. What report did the messenger 

bring ? 

10. The breeze brings the odor of 
the flowers. 

11. Tain teaches men patience. 

12. Hope was followed by despair. 
L3. Our guide had no fear in times 

of danger. 
14. Innocence is the charm of 
childhood. 



139. Some nouns stand for such things as can be seen ; 
daffodils, beauty, Richard, Boston; 
others for what we hear ; as, — 

jingle, cry, shout, report: 
some for what we can only smell ; as, — 

fragrance, odor, perfume: 



nouns . 93 

others for what can be felt in some way ; as, — 

breeze, pain, heat, fear, despair: 
and when we come to think more about all such things we find use 
for many other nouns ; as, — 

innocence, charm, childhood. 
Arrange all the nouns m the last exercise in five lists as in § 139. 

140. A Noun is a word used as the name of something. 

The word " noun " means just this: the name by which a thing is known. 

EXERCISE 122. 

1. Make a list of ten vehicles that run on wheels. 

2. What names are given to structures in which men live ? 

3. Name some things that are found in the earth. 

4. In what different craft do men travel by water ? 

5. Name as many as you can of the parts of a ship. 

141. An assertion may be made about anything we 
can name, and so any noun may be the subject of a 
sentence. But we often use the name of something 
about which we do not make any statement, and so we 
may have in one sentence many nouns besides the sub- 
ject. Thus : — 

This steamship | has two red paddle-wheels, a black stack 
for the smoke, and three tall masts without sails. 

Here steamship is the subject, and the complete predicate is a 
long one containing five nouns. What are they? 

EXERCISE 123. 

1. Which of the nouns in Ex. 121 do not belong to the subject? 

2. Tell how many nouns are used in each sentence in Ex. 105. 

3. Write sentences, using three of these nouns in each one : — 



flock 


raven 


fox 


thief 


wings 


geese 


piece 


tail 


home 


flapping 


trees 


cheese 


brush 


dinner 


noise 



94 KINDS OF WORDS. 

142. When the complete subject contains the names of several 
things, we must be careful to distinguish the one essential word which 
if it stood alone would still name the subject. Thus, in the sentence — 

The famous palace of the kings of the Moors at Grenada, in 
Spain, | was called the Alhambra, 

we have five nouns in the complete subject ; but we see that it is the 
palace that is said to have been called the Alhambra. The other 
words are added to show ichicli palace is referred to. 

EXERCISE 124. 

1. Make a list of the twenty-five nouns in these sentences. Draw 
a wavy line under the eleven used as subjects. x 

7. At night the moon could not 



1. The darkest clouds bring rain. 

2. The leaves of the trees rustled 

in the wind. 

3. Great clouds of smoke were 

floating in the air. 

4. The rays of the sun were al- 

most entirely obscured. 

5. A dim light came in at the 

windows. 

6. Our tasks were left undone. 



be seen. 

8. The trees along the river were 
torn up by the roots. 

9. The birds' feathers were wet 
and dripping. 

10. The brooks on the mountains 
were swollen to torrents. 

11. A wooden bridge near the 
town was carried away. 

2. Write an account of a severe storm. 



EXERCISE 125. 

1. Make a list of nouns that designate the members of a family 
or other relatives. 

2. Give ten nouns that designate people according to their trades. 

3. Name the different parts — 

of a wagon ; of a bird ; of a book ; of a watch ; of a church . 

4. Name some things made — 

of glass ; of leather; of paper; of steel; of snow; of stone. 

5. Mention the names of several games ; virtues ; vices ; diseases. 

1 While studying grammar Ave will use the word " subject " to mean the '* essential " 
subject. 



PEONOUKS. 95 

II. PRONOUNS. 

EXERCISE 126. 

1. In the sentences : — 

Mr. Richardson was a wealthy man. He kept many horses. These 
were his favorites. They lived in a fine stable. It was like a dwell- 
ing-house, — 

who is meant by he? What by these? By his? By they? To 
what does it refer ? 

2. Copy the sentences, using these other words instead of he, 
they, etc., but without changing the meaning. 

3. Which do you think is the better way to make these assertions? 
Give the reason. 

4. Mention all the nouns in your copy. 

143. Besides nouns, there are a few other words such 
as lie, these, they, it, that often stand for that which we 
have just mentioned, no matter what it is. 

Thus, if any one said, — 

The President has inspected the Navy, 
he might add, — 

He found it in fair condition; 
but he would not repeat the nouns, and say that, — 

The President found the Navy in fair condition. 

So when we point to a thing, instead of calling it by 
name, we generally use a word of this kind like this or 
that, these or those. 

144. Such words are called Pronouns because they 
take the place of nouns ; and we always prefer to use 
them if only we can be understood. 

EXERCISE 127. 

1. Try to improve the following by using other words instead of 
repeating the nouns : — 



96 KINDS OF WORDS. 

1. The people were returning from , 4. One woman was very ill. 

work. •"'. This woman was being carried 

2. The work was very hard. by the woman's husband. 

3. The work seemed to make the 6. Tin 1 husband was the town- 

people weary. crier. 

2. If Jane were speaking to John, would she say, "John surprised 
Jane," or, "You surprised me *'? 

3. If Carl were greeting his friend William, what would he say 
instead of " Carl is glad to see William " ? 

145. When we speak or write to a person, we do not 
keep referring to him by name; we say you, instead: and 

when we say anything about ourselves, we never think of 
using our names ; for, no matter what they are, we almost 
always say, /, me, myself, we, us, and so on. 
Thus, we should say, — 

I wish you would come to see me, 
and the reply might be, — 

We shall be glad to have you entertain us. 

Here there are no nouns, — nobody is mentioned by name ; but the 
meaning would be very clear to those who were present. 

Try to substitute names, and you will see how convenient the 
pronouns are. 

EXERCISE 123. 

1. Select the pronouns in these sentences; that is, the words aged 
instead of nouns. 



6. It was perfectly white. 

7. They seemed to me to be 
frozen . 

8. The nurse was with us. 

9. She warmed them by rubbing. 
1<>. You must thank her. 
11. We are very glad. 

2. Which of the pronouns are used as subjects? 



1. The doctor is coming. 

2. Call to him. 

3. Have you improved? 

4. Yes ; I feel quite well. 

5. Early this morning I could see 

your arms stretched out over 
the snow. 



PRONOUNS. 97 

146. When we do not know the name of a person or 
a thing, we use a pronoun to ask a question. Thus : — 

"Who brought the news? Which did you say? 

What caused the fire? Whom shall we blame? 

EXERCISE 129. 

1. Write assertive sentences in answer to the preceding questions. 

2. What words have you used in place of the pronouns ? 

3. Write imperative or interrogative sentences, using two of these 
pronouns in each one : — 

I, myself; me, mine; we, ourselves; us, ours. 

147. («) Every one of the thousands of nouns in our language, and every expres- 
sion, however long, that is used like a noun to describe a person or a thing, can be replaced 
at one time or another by pronouns. 

(o) The use of them enables us to point out what we have been talking about more 
exactly than we could by taking tbe trouble to describe it again. 

(c) Pronouns form a class by themselves because their meaning depends upon the 
connection in which they stand; but they are used as subjects and in other ways very 
much as nouns are. 

EXERCISE 130. 

In these sentences give the whole expression that each pronoun 
takes the place of : — 



1. The sail down the river was 

very pleasant. 

2. It occupied about nine hours. 

3. We met several fine yachts. 

4. They seemed to be racing. 

5. The captain of the steamer told 

many of his adventures. 



Two of them were very exciting. 
His first vessel was a brigantine 

of six hundred tons. 
She foundered off the coast of 

Jamaica. 
He told lis how he was forced 

to abandon her. 



148. A Pronoun is a word that may take the place of a 
noun, and represent any person or thing- as present or just men- 
tioned. 

The word " pronoun " means /or a noun. 



98 KINDS OF WORDS. 

III. VERBS. 
EXERCISE 131. 

1. What are assertive sentences ? Give an example. 

2. What are the other kinds? Make a sentence of each kind. 

3. Explain the meaning of "assert." 

4. Make assertions about five things that you see. 

5. Which of the following are assertive? Are they sentences of 
any sort ? Tell your reason. 

1. Squirrels in hollow trees. 3. We chestnuts in October. 

2. The sap in the spring. 1. The ice thick enough to bear. 

6. Make assertive sentences of them by using Jive, flows, gather, is. 

7. Change them to interrogative sentences. 

149. Words used to assert are Verbs. 

They are not as numerous as nouns, but they form an equally im- 
portant class, and most other words have been derived from them. 

150. To make a complete sentence we need only give 
the name of something, and say or assert something about 
it. With a noun or a pronoun and a verb we can do just 
this. As, — 

Flowers fade. Grass -withers. 

I command. They obey. 

Without a verb there can be no assertion, — no predicate, 
— no sentence. 

EXERCISE 132. 
1. What kind of word will make sentences of the following? 
Supply what is needed. 1 

1. Rubber from South America. 

2. The pure gum very valuable. 

3. Water the wheels of the mill. 

1 Exercises of this sort should be repeated till the fuuction of verbs is distinctly/;//. 



VERBS. 99 

4. The cotton-plant in the Gnlf States. 

5. A letter three thousand miles for two cents. 

6. The Gnlf Stream north-east. 

7. Behring Strait the Arctic and the Pacific Oceans. 

8. The signal service a fair day to-morrow. 

9. The snow ten feet deep in the woods last winter. 

10. The boys all hunting yesterday. 

11. The fox by hiding under a rock. 

12. Trout-fishing considerable skill. 

2. Mention the verbs in Ex. 117. 

151. The verb may be a single word that asserts ; as 
when we say, — 

The tree | grows, meaning now, or 

The tree | grew, meaning some time ago. 

But if we wish to speak of time to come, we must say, — 
The tree | will grow; 

and in all these sentences, — 

The tree | is growing. 

The tree | has grown. 

The tree | would have grown. 

The tree | may be growing. 

The tree | might have been growing. 

Ave need the help of one, two, or three other words besides 
grown and growing, in order to assert what we mean 
about the growth of the tree. 

The words of each group taken together we call a verb- 
phrase, because they do the work of a single verb. 

EXERCISE 133. 

Select the expressions of more than one word that take the place 
of single verbs; that is to say, the verb-phrases. 
1. The message was brought an I 2. We had hoped for better news. 
hour ago. | 3. But we must lose no time. 



100 



KINDS OF WORDS. 



The best horses have been sent 

over the turnpike. 
They may overtake the party. 
Otherwise nothing but failure 

awaits us. 
We might have kept Xero. 
Tt is too late now. 



9. Perhaps we shall meet them 
all at Castleton. 

10. Saddle your horses at once. 

11. The back road will be safest. 
lii. I should inquire for them ai 

Newbury. 
13. They must have gone early. 



152. Contractions. The first word of those that help 
to make a verb-phrase, is sometimes written so as to show 
that we cut it short in speaking. Thus. — 

We've met him. for We have met him. 

EXERCISE 134. 
Copy these expressions, writing out the verbs in full, as if they 
were to be spoken slowly : — 



1. I'm sorry. 

2. She'll come. 

3. Time's up. 

4. I've done. 



5. It's too late. 
C. We're here. 

7. You've heard. 

8. Who's come? 



0. They'd just gone. 

10. She's waiting. 

11. You'd be surprised. 

12. We sha'n'1 



153. A Verb is an asserting- word or phrase. 

The word " verb " means word,— that which is. spoken. 

154. A Verb-phrase is a group of words used as a 
single verb. Verb-phrases are often called verbs. 

We shall learn sometime that many other groups of words used like sinul.- words are 
also called j)h7'ases. 

EXERCISE 135. 

Select the single verbs and the verb-phrases. 

1. The air thickens. 2. Familiar objects are hidden as by a mist. 
3. Paths disappear. 4. Voices of teamsters are heard. 5. Nothing 
can be seen in the road. 6. Like a fog the snow hides all things. 
7. Xot a breath of wind disturbs its descent. 8. The branches of the 
trees are clothed as with wool. !). Still the noiseless flakes fill the 
sky. 10. A change has taken | 



VERBS. 101 

155. It very often happens, as in these sentences, — 
The man has a son. They man the boats. 

that there is no difference in the spelling of two words, 
one of which is a noun and the other a verb : and we must 
remember to decide about them by their use. 



EXERCISE 136. 

Distinguish between the nouns and the verbs that are spelled 
alike in these sentences. Thus : — 



" Pass " in first sentence is a verb ; " 

1. Pass through here. 

2. Order a load of stones. 

3. Load them with care. 

4. They work with their hands. 

5. They care not for play. 

6. He stones the stray dogs. 



i " in the seventh sentence is a noun. 

7. Fear not the pass. 

8. He drives without fear. 

9. He hands me a whip. 

10. He dogs me while at my work. 

11. We whip them by your order. 

12. They play during my drives. 



EXERCISE 137. 

Write sentences, using each word once as a noun and once as a 
verb, as in S 155. 



heat 

chain 

stand 



fly 

rock 
fall 



hope 
water 
iron 



milk 

fan 

lap 



point 
deck 
strap 



EXERCISE 138. 

Select one of the following topics, and write five short sentences 
about it. Draw a wavy line under the subject, and a straight line 
under the verb. 



1. A thunder-storm. 

2. Getting breakfast. 

3. Making hay. 

4. A game of ball. 



5. Taking a photograph. 

6. A bicycle ride. 

7. A drive in the country. 

8. A ride to the city. 



102 KINDS OF WOKDS. 

IV. ADJECTIVES. 

156. We must have seen that most sentences are made 
up of something more than a noun (or a pronoun) and a 
verb. 

It is true, of course, that the very shortest ones may give us some 
information about their subjects. For example : in 

Ice breaks and Diamonds glitter, 

ice and diamonds are described a little; but nobody wants to say, — • 

Ice is or Diamonds are, 

for these verbs is and are do not tell us anything worth Baying. 

We have to add the descriptive words, thus : — 
Ice is brittle. Diamonds are brilliant. 

Ice is cold. Diamonds are scarce. 

Ice is transparent. Diamonds are costly. 

Without these additions the predicate seems incomplete. 

EXERCISE 139. 
1. Which are the descriptive words in these sentences? What is 
described by each of them ? 



1. My roses are yellow. 

2. The sky was clear. 

3. The path will be narrow. 

4. The day had been cold. 

5. My answer may be wrong. 

6. They seem anxious. 

7. The night grows dark. 



8. Your rabbit is shy. 

9. I am hungry. 

10. She can be careful. 

11. We should be generous. 

12. My friend looks ill. 

13. The milk has become boot. 

14. The knives must be sharp. 



2. Could the descriptive words be used like nouns as the subject 
of a sentence ? Tell the reason. 

3. Change these expressions to assertions; then change them to 
questions : — 

1. yellow gold 3. Lofty mountains .">. dull knife 

2. eloquent orators j 4. fierce tigers 6. skilful doctors 



ADJECTIVES. 



103 



EXERCISE 140. 

Make assertions, using with the verbs words descriptive of these 
things. Thus : — 

" Foxes are cunning." 



1. Foxes — — . 

2. The use of tobacco 

3. Rosewood . 

4. The music . 

5. Some clouds . 

6. Your clock . 



7. The pears in my orchard - 

8. Our country . 

9. That well - — . 

10. Yonder mountains . 

11. My kitten . 

12. Country roads . 



EXERCISE 141. 
What descriptive words can be used with these nouns to imply that 
what they name have the qualities set opposite them ? Thus : — 
" Timber is strong." " Horses are swift." 



1. timber 


strength 


6. wagous 


weight 


2. coals 


heat 


7. clothing 


warmth 


3. poles 


length 


8. flowers 


beauty 


4. grass 


dampness 


9. children 


truthfulness 


5. horses 


speed 


10. tigers 


ferocity , 



157. Even when we use a verb that does not require 
something to be added, as in — 

Roses grow, 

still we commonly wish to tell what kind of roses is meant, 
and how, or where, or when they grow. Thus : — 
Yellow roses grow by still rivers. 

EXERCISE 142. 

What could these words be used to describe ? Thus : — 







' Disastrous fires 


" 




brave 


brisk 


disastrous 


sorrowful 


brilliant 


feeble 


noisy 


wild 


heavy 


useless 


clear 


charming 


uncertain 


tiresome 


late 



104 



KINDS OF WORDS. 



158. Words of this kind are called Adjectives because 
they describe a person or a thing by adding some quality 
to the name that is used; that is, they describe or qualify 
what is mentioned. 

EXERCISE 143. 

1. Which words in these sentences are used with a noun to de- 
scribe the object it represents by adding some quality ? 

13 



1. Kind friends have come. 

"J. They brought us purple grapes. 

3. Black clouds turn to rain. 

4. Rolling stones gather no moss. 

5. Grangers gather golden grain. 

6. Studious boys make intelligent 

men. 

7. Fairest flowers will fade. 

8. Absent friends forget us. 
D. Little leaks sink great ships. 

10. Old wood makes the best fire. 

11. Sound health is long life. 

12. It is a warm day in July. 

2. Copy ten of these sentences, underlining subject and verb. En- 
close adjectives that qualify the subject incurves. Thus: — 

( Kind) friends have come. 

3. Make lists of four adjectives each that may 1 >e used to describe. — 



White. nVecy clouds are in the 
blue sky. 

14. I see a large grasshopper on a 

pointed leaf. 

15. lie has eaten a small round 

hole in it. 
10. My tapping on the leafy bough 
stops his merry song. 

17. Then a green locust begins 

with a loud buzz. 

18. The limp grass would be re- 

vived by a gentle rain or a 
heavv shower. 



iron 


road 


sponge 


desk 


river 


gold 



trees 
rope 
farm 



! coal 
watch 
tar 



grapes 

ship 

sea 



159. An adjective, then, may be used in two ways: — 

1. We may make it a part of the predicate so as to 
assert that the subject 1ms it certain quality ; as, — 
The meadows are fertile. 
An adjective used in this way is called a predicate adjective. 



ADJECTIVES. 



105 



2. Without using it as part of the assertion we may 
make it add to what the noun alone would mean ; as, — 

Happy children have sunny faces. 



EXERCISE 144. 

1. Mention the adjectives that are descriptive, and tell to what 
each one adds a quality. 



1. The day was pleasant. 

2. The busy bee improves the 

shining hour. 

3. The old songs are delightful. 

4. The Yosemite Valley is noted 

for its magnificent scenery. 

5. The domestic commerce of Bos- 

ton is extensive. 

6. I am reading an interesting 

book. 

7. Richard looked sober at this. 

8. Delays are dangerous. 



9. Laughing is contagious. 

10. The moon silvers the distant 

hills. 

11. The full moon threw its sil- 

very light upon the rippling 
waters of the lake. 

12. On a low bench under a spread- 

ing tree sat an old sailor. 

13. Beneath her torn hat glowed 

the wealth 
Of simple beauty and rustic 
health. 



2. Which of the adjectives are part of the predicate V 

160. Whichever way used, most adjectives describe what 
the noun or the pronoun represents. But there are otlier 
words called adjectives, which affect the meaning in a 
different way ; thus, if we say, — 

The king lived a year and some months in this city, 

we show that we mean only a particular king, only one year, about 
how many months, and which city. These words, the, a, some, this, 
are adjectives, because they add something to our meaning that 
was not expressed by the noun alone : but they do not tell what kind 
of king, year, month, or city, as if we were to say, — 

A good king lived a dreary year and three tiresome months in 
a hostile city. 



106 KINDS OF WOKDS. 

161. Words that refer to number are of this sort; as here, — 

one day sixteen months first minute 

two weeks tenth hour half second 

These show to just how many or to which one the name applies; 
and there are only about forty others, including, — 

a or an, the, every, few, same, several, 

many, any, all, first, last, this or these, 

each, either, much, no, that or those. 

162. Such adjectives, without referring to any quality, 
always add something to our meaning by showing which 
ones, or how many, and so on. Without them the mean- 
ing of a noun might be very indefinite, and so we say that 
they determine or limit the application of it. 

EXERCISE 145. 

Select the adjectives that do not describe, but only show to which 
ones or to how many the noun applies. Tell what each one limits. 

1. Eight men were on that committee. 

2. February has twenty -nine days every fourth year. 

3. Each exercise must be well written. 

4. Much harm arises from imprudence. 

5. No man knows all things. 

6. Every flock contains some black sheep. 

7. This park contains forty-four acres. 

8. All the trees in yonder row have stood there many years. 

9. Several English elms and some maples were blown down. 

10. That pond down the slope is used for skating every year. 

11. There are no shade trees on either side of that street. 

12. Few persons take much interest in such matters. 

13. Both rivers rise in the same plateau. 

14. A careless or ignorant person might improperly say "them 
books " instead of " those books." 

15. Always say " this kind, 7 ' " that sort " : it is an error to say "these 
kind," " those sort." 



ADJECTIVES. 



10T 



163. An Adjective is a word that may be added to a nonn or 
a pronoun either to describe or to determine what it means. 

The word " adjective " means something that is added to a noun or name. 

164. Descriptive or qualifying- adjectives describe 
what is mentioned. 

Limiting adjectives show which ones, how many, and so 
on, without describing. 

EXERCISE 146. 

1. Put all the adjectives into two lists, — one for those that de- 
scribe, and one for those that do not. 



1. We have caught a few speckled 

trout in that brook. 

2. The new yacht Louette won the 

last race. 

3. Large quantities of cotton are 

exported from this country 
each year. 

4. Carnivorous animals eat animal 

food. 

5. Herbivorous animals eat vege- 

table food. 

6. Omnivorous animals eat all 

kinds of food. 



li). 



Every blossom on that apple- 
tree should have five petals. 

The century-plant blossoms 
only once in its lifetime of 
seven to fifty years. 

Deciduous trees lose their foli- 
age every autumn. 

Evergreen trees are covered 
with foliage all the year 
round. 

Galls are round bodies formed 
on some plants by the stings 
of insects. 



2. What does each adjective modify? 



EXERCISE 147. 

Use with each of these nouns two adjectives, — the first telling 
which one, or how many, and so on ; and the other telling the 
kind, or adding a quality. Thus : — 





" 


This fruitful field." 




field 


waves 


clouds 


steamer 


church 


soldiers 


medicine 


bees 


stories 


grain 


storm 


cattle 


silk 


books 


river 



108 KINDS OF WORDS. 

165. Punctuation. Rule. — Two or more qualifying 
adjectives that describe the same thing must be separated by 
commas, unless there ore words between that conned them all. 

Thus, we write a large sleigh without commas, using an adjective 
of each kind, or the same sleigh, using two limiting adjectives; but 

the same old, broken, one-seated sleigh 

needs commas between the qualifying adjectives. So in the expres- 
sion. — 

Dark, long, and weary hours. 

But when the adjectives are all connected, we write. — 

The hills are desolate and rugged and wild. 

EXERCISE 148. 
Put commas where they should be in the following : — 
1. All attentive studious faithful scholars — 2. Every well-bred 
intelligent man — 3. A wild barren uncultivated district — 4. Broad 

well-watered fruitful plains — 5. An honest kind and generous 
nature — 

EXERCISE 149. 

1. Use each of these words as an adjective, and as a noun or a 
verb : — 

sound I right I second I sprue. ■ ' warm 

light I stone mail rage | stone 

2. Change the descriptive adjectives to others of similar mean- 
ing : — 

We saw many novel sights in this remote town . There v. 
remarkable clearness in the air. and there were lofty hills all about 

clothed with extensive forests. We were walking along a zigzag path 
towards a rather desolate spot where the yearly fair had once been 
held. The abandoned booths were vacant, but we met a numerous 
company of persons who had come a prolonged journey through these 
retired valleys on some charitable errand to the peasants. Thev had 
found the burning heat very disagreeable, and seemed to be tired and 
eager to rest. 



109 



V. ADVERBS. 

EXERCISE 150. 

1. "Which words in these sentences show when the men are to 
work ? 

2. Which tell how, or in what manner, they ought to work ? 

3. Which show where ? 

4. Which show how much ? 

The men must work quietly. The men must work well. 

The men must work early. The men must work now. 

The men must work here. The men must work outside. 

The men must work less. The men must work more. 

5. Can you think of any other single words that would show how, 
or ichen, or where men must work ? 

166. If we should take away from the examples in Ex. 150 these 
words, quietly, early, here, less, well, now, outside, more, just the 
same thing would be asserted in every sentence. But each one of the 
words that are added to the verb makes a little change in what the 
verb alone would mean ; for they show how, when, where, and so on. 



EXERCISE 151. 

Which words are added to the verbs to show how, when, where, 

and so on ? 



1. Wait patiently. 

2. You must go now. 

3. I shall visit Europe soon. 

4. Have you ever been there ? 

5. The train runs regularly. 

6. Snow sometimes delays it. 



10. 



The plough soon scatters the 

snow. 
It was scarcely needed. 
The pendulum moves to and 

fro continually. 
The day has almost ended. 



167. Words of this sort are called Adverbs because 
they are added to verbs to make our meaning more 
definite, very much as adjectives are added to nouns 
and pronouns. 



110 KINDS OF WORDS. 

EXERCISE 152. 

Fill each blank with an adverb that will tell when, where, or 
how. 



1. The girls write — 

2. We shall sing 

3. Those yachts .-ail - 

4. They returned 

5. We might go 



6. Our hearts beat . 

7. The river flows . 

8. The fire burns . 

0. The messenger will return - 
10. Can you read music 5 



EXERCISE 153. 
Mention every verb, and the adverb that modifies it. telling whether 
it shows how, when, or where. Thus : — 
The verb " must go " is modified by the adverb " now," which shows when we must go. 



1. We must go now. 

2. Yonder comes my father. 

3. I never called there again. 

4. Water is found everywhere 



5. He bears trouble patiently. 

6. They sometimes sing finely. 

7. The best often fail. 

8. Return quickly. 
0. The procession moved slowly onward. 

10. Our friends will probably come back to-morrow. 

11. The rain fell heavily last Tuesday. 

12. Lightning flashed vividly in the clouds. 

13. The thunder rumbled everywhere. 

14. People were running hither and thither. 

15. Umbrellas were quickly raised. 

16. Carriages dashed hurriedly along. 

EXERCISE 154. 
Copy some of the sentences in Ex. 15:}, marking subject and verb. 
and putting the adverbs in brackets. Tims : — 

The procession moved [onward] [slowly] . 

168. Some of these words have another use. 
Thus, instead of — 

The hill is steep; This book is new, — 
we should often wish to say how steep, how nearly new, and so on, 



ADVEEBS. Ill 

The hill is very steep. This book is almost new. 

The hill is less steep. This book is quite new. 

The hill is steep enough. This book is entirely new. 

The hill is steep here. This book is new now. 

But what kind of a word is steep, and what have we done to express 
our meaning more fully ? 

There are modifiers for adjectives, then, just as much as 
for nouns and verbs. 

EXERCISE 155. 
First select the nouns, and say what adjectives qualify or limit 
them. Then tell which adjectives have a word added to show hoiv or 
7ww much. 



1. This lesson is very short. 

2. You are extremely careless. 

3. Can you find a partly open rose? 

4. He read an exceedingly inter- 

esting story. 



Oxen are rather sluggish ani- 
mals. 

Fred is remarkably cheerful this 
morning. 

Is it too difficult for you ? 



169. Such words we already know about: they are 
adverbs. The reason for using the same kind of words 
with both adjectives and verbs, is that both need to be 
modified in the same way; that is to say, by telling how, 
Jioiv often, when, where, how much, how little, and so on. 

EXERCISE 156. 
1. Select the adjectives in these sentences, and tell which o£ them 
are modified by adverbs : — 

1. The night was very dark. 2. Everybody was sleeping soundly. 

3. The dim light of the new moon was almost entirely concealed. 

4. I was rather late about my errand. 5. The somewhat steep path 
over the hill was little trodden. 6. It was very much too rocky for 
so dark a night. 7. Even the sky was nearly black. 8. I was wisely 
cautious. 9. Except for such great care I should have fallen repeat- 
edly. 10. I finally reached my destination in a completely exhausted 
condition. 

2. Read the sentences, omitting the adverbs. 



112 



KINDS OF WO.KDS. 



170. Sometimes, in order to show just what we mean, 
we need to modify an adverb. Thus : — 
He has come often may l>e changed to — 
He has come very often, or rather often, and — 
lie spoke truly may become — 

He spoke quite truly, or more truly, or less truly. 



EXERCISE 157. 
Which words in these sentences modify adverbs? 



1 . Speak very distinctly. 

2. James, you read too rapidly. 

3. How quietly that train runs ! 

4. Water is found almost every- 

where. 



5. Kind deeds are almost i 

forgot t mi. 
0. Have we gone far enough? 
7. Our exercises must be more 

neatly written. 



171. In such sentences the words that modify a<l\ 

are themselves adverbs, and could be used to modify adjec- 
tives or verbs. 

Adverbs, then, can be used in three different ways. 

172. An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjec- 
tive, or another adverb. 

EXERCISE 158. 
1. Use these adverbs in sentences to modify verbs : — 



eautiously 


seldom 


often 


formerly 


faithfully 


always 


again 


lately 


sometimes 


forever 


backward 


never 



2. Use these adverbs in sentences to modify adjectives: — 

almost I too I totally | quite 

nearly | so entirely lmw 

3. Use adverbs — all different — to modify the following in 
tences : — 

feebly: rapidly; much; greatly, well. 



PREPOSITIONS. 113 

VI. PREPOSITIONS. 

EXERCISE 159. 

1. What is an adjective ? 

2. In the expressions in the first column, what words describe 
houses ? What kind of words are they ? 

1. wooden houses or houses of wood. 

2. empty houses or houses loiihout occupants. 

3. three-storied houses or houses with three stories. 

4. public houses or houses for the public. 

5. city houses or houses in the city. 

3. What do the groups of words in the second column describe ? 
What are they used like ? 

4. Use adjectives in place of the following italicized groups with- 
out much changing the meaning. Tell what each modifies. 

1. Business of importance detained me. 

2. Carpets from Persia are costly. 

3. We found a wagon with two seats. 

4. Men of wealth should be generous. 

EXERCISE 160. 

1. What is an adverb? 

2. What words in the first column tell how, when, or where the ship 
sails ? What kind of words are they ? 

1. The ship sails rapidly or The ship sails with rapidity. 

2. The ship sails safely or The ship sails without danger. 

3. The ship sails afar or The ship sails to a distance. 

4. The ship sails now or The ship sails at this time. 

5. The ship sails there or The ship sails for that place. 

3. What does each group in the second column tell about the sail- 
ing of the ship? W T hat does each one mean? What are they used 
like ? 

4. Use adverbs in the place of the italicized groups without much 
changing the meaning. What does each modify? 

1. The Indians lived in this place. I 3. Be courteous at all times. 

2. Never write without care. 4. Do they deal upon honor? 



114 KISDS of words. 

173. The single words that we have used to modify 
other words are adjectives or adverbs; but we see that 
little groups of words called phrases may be used to 
modify both nouns and verbs in about the same way. 

Thus we may speak of — 

a thorny bush or a bush with thorns : 
an English home or a home in England. 

It is easy to see that with thorns and in England are very much 

like adjectives in meaning, though they are put after the noun instead 
of before it. Again, in these sentence.-. — 

The letter "was carefully written. It was sent promptly. 

The letter -was written with care. It was sent without delay. 

the phrases with care and without delay seem to modify the verbs 
just as the adverbs carefully and promptly do. So, too. — 

The wind blew very furiously might be changed to — 
The wind blew with great fury. 

174. It very often happens that there is no adjective or 
adverb in our language that will serve as a modifier to 
express our meaning, and then we are forced to use such 
phrases. 

Here, for example, we could not possibly find a single word that 
would take the place of the phrases : — 

The house by the river is a hotel. He came from the city. 
Those on the shelf are sold. The bucket hung in the well. 

The path of industry leads to success. 

My friend was with his regiment. 

All such groups of words are called phrases because 
they are used like single words. 

We have already learned that a verb-phrase is used like a single 
verb, and we shall find that then- arc still other kinds of ph 



PREPOSITIONS. 



115 



EXERCISE 161. 

1. Which phrases in these sentences are used like adjectives f 

2. Do those that are used like adverbs tell how, when, where, or 
how often ? 



1. He came in haste. 

2. We are in fear. 

3. People of intelligence live in 

this place. 

4. Diamonds of great value are 

found in that field. 

5. My friend never comes behind 

time. 



He pays his rent by the month. 
He finished his task with ease. 
He came to this place after the 

time. 
Children like stories about 

fairies. 
The plan was made in secret. 
We shall deal upon honor. 



3. Change the phrases to adjectives or adverbs, if you can think 
of any that will serve. 

EXERCISE 162. 

1. Use a phrase instead of the adjective or adverb. 

1. Turkish rugs 5. strong men 9. go now 

2. juvenile books 6. a marine disaster 10. send it soon 

3. Java coffee 7. spoke distinctly 11. study diligently 

4. silver plates 8. went homeward 12. walk quietly 

2. Use an adjective or an adverb in place of the phrase. 



1. a road along the river 

2. a path up the mountain 

3. a man of strength 

4. a journey toward home 

5. a child at play 

6. a trip through Europe 

7. women of fashion 

8. women of sense 



9. lands beyond the seas 

10. jewelry from France 

11. treat all with respect 

12. came to this place 

13. polite at all times 

14. speak in public 

15. behave with propriety 

16. a bird on the wing 



175. All these phrases contain a noun or a pronoun 
with a word like of, with, from, in, at, or by, that connects 
it with what is modified. These words usually come first 
in the phrase, and they are called Prepositions. 

Let us see what they do for our language that other words will 
not do. 



116 KINDS OF WORDS. 

1 76. If we wished to show that a clump of trees was the place 
where some boys were hiding, we might say,— 

The boys hid in the trees. The boys hid among the trees. 

The boys hid under the trees. The boys hid behind the trees. 

The boys hid beyond the trees. 

The only difference is in the prepositions in, under, among, etc 
Read the sentences without them, and you will sec that nobody could 
tell what the trees had to do with the hiding; but with the preposi- 
tions we see that the word "trees" can 1>p used to modify "hid" in 
various ways ; for it is one thing to hide under the trees, another to 
hide in the trees, and so on. 

EXERCISE 163. 
Select the phrases and tell what each one modifies. Thus : — 

" From Plymouth " is a phrase used like an adverb to modify the verb " sailed." 

1. The Mayflower sailed from Plymouth. 

2. Magellan's ship sailed around the globe. 

3. Beautiful pearls are found in the sea. 

4. The early settlers hunted for gold. 

5. The star rested over Bethlehem. 

6. The English settled along the coast. 

7. "We shall return through the valley. 

8. My friends will come in the next train. 

9. Garfield lived in Ohio during his boyhood. 
10. Xo one should be condemned without a trial. 

177. Using a phrase as an adjective, we might say, — 
The land around the grove. The shade of the grove. 
The walk from the grove. The road to the grove. 

The path through the grove. 
Here we modify or explain the meaning of the nouns vail, html, 
shade, etc., by referring to the grove; but in order to do this we have 
to use a different preposition in each expression. 

178. To show how one word can modify another, or 
what the meanings of two words have to do with each 
other, is to show the relation between them. 



PREPOSITIONS. 117 

EXERCISE 164. 
Select the phrases and tell what each one modifies. Thus : — 

" Of Rome " is a phrase used as an adjective to modify the noun " city." 

1. The city of Rome is the capital of Italy. 

2. The road up the mountain is very rocky. 

3. Goods for that firm were shipped yesterday. 
I. The planet with the rings is Saturn. 

o. Admission to college depends on attainments. 

6. The town beyond Lexington is Concord. 

7. Success without effort is impossible. 

8. The fort near the city was captured first. 

9. Icebergs from the Arctic Ocean melt in the Gulf Stream. 
10. Journeys into the interior are rarely made. 

179. A Preposition is a relation=word used with a noun or 
a pronoun to make a phrase haying the use of an adjective or an 
adverb. 

The word " preposition " means what is placed before. 

180. The noun or pronoun used with a preposition to 
make a phrase is called the Object of the preposition. 

181. A Prepositional Phrase is one that contains a 
preposition and its object. 

EXERCISE 165. 

1. Select the prepositions in Exs. 163 and 164, and tell between 
what words each shows the relation. Thus : — 

"From" is a preposition, and shows the relation between its object "Plymouth" 
and the verb " sailed," which' the phrase modifies. 

2. Mention the prepositions with the object of each, and tell 
whether the phrase is used as an adjective or an adverb. 

1. Birds in great numbers fly over this grove. 2. Some with blue 
plumage have dropped a handful of feathers for me. 3. Quails from 
the north meet jays from the south. 4. There are eggs in the nest 
near the vine. 5. The mother bird is mottled at the throat and along 
the breast. 6. A bluebird nests under the eaves. 



118 



KINDS OF WORDS 



182. Since prepositional phrases can be used wherever 
an adverb can be, we find them modifying not only 
nouns, pronouns, and verbs, but adjectives and ad 
also. Thus : — 

He was happy to excess, or lie was excessively happy. 

They are ripe before the time, or They are prematurely ripe. 

In other cases it is harder to find what will take the place of the 
phrase. As: — 

This breeze is fresh from the ocean. 

We are weary with working. 
Here the four phrases modify adjectives as adverbs would. 



EXERCISE 166. 

Point out the prepositional phrases, and tell whether they modify 
adjectives or adverbs. 

1. Those trees are heavy with fruit. 

2. You are too cautious for me. 

3. The children were happy be- j 
yond measure. 



She is insane from anxiety. 
Shall you be absent from home ? 
We found rosebuds pink at the 
tips. 



4. Always be polite to strangers. j 8. The grass was wet with dew. 



EXERCISE 167. 
1. Use these phrases in sentences : — 





with him 


against it 




to you 






by her 


between us 




for whom 






after me 


behind them 




from him 




2. Here are the most c 


ommon prepositions. Use 


each one in 


sentence. 










about 




around 


beyond 


of 


under 


above 




at 


by 


on 


unto 


across 




before 


down 


over 


up 


after 




behind 


for 


through 


upon 


against 




below 


from 


till 


with 


along 




beneath 


in 


to 


within 


among 




between 


into 


t 


oward 


without 



CONJUNCTIONS. 119 

VII. CONJUNCTIONS. 

183. We have learned that a preposition connects two other words 
by showing what one of thern has to do with the other. 

We come now to words that connect in a different way. 

In the sentence, — 

The sun sets and the moon appears, 

how many verbs are there ? What is the subject of each ? Read the 
sentence, omitting the word and. 

Here, then, are two sentences joined or tied together as 
one sentence. They might have been printed thus; — 

The sun sets. The moon appears. 
So we might unite three or more sentences into one ; as, — 
The sun sets, (and) the moon appears, and the stars come out, 
or we might connect two sentences in different ways ; as, — 

The sun has set, and the stars appear. 

The sun has set, for the stars appear. 

The sun has set, but the stars appear. 

The sun has set, therefore the stars appear. 

And seems to join the sentences together, as if they were about 
one subject; for shows that one statement gives a reason for making 
the other ; and so on with other words of this sort, such as but, there- 
fore, or, nor, hence, however. 

184. There are not very many of these words, and as 
they all connect or join together what we say, they are 
called Conjunctions. 

They all denote different relations between the expres- 
sions they connect, by showing what the connected parts 
have to do with each other. But, unlike prepositions, 
they always connect expressions of the same sort. 



120 KINDS OF WORDS. 

EXERCISE 168. 
What sentences have been united to make the Eollowii 

1. The birds have come and the flowers appear. 

2. The ocean is rough for the breakers roar. 
•'). My pears are ripe and I am glad. 

4. Some are very large but they are not yellow. 

5. You cannot have tried earnestly or you would have succeeded. 

6. The sky seems clear yet no stars are visible. 

7. We cannot get money nor have we any food. 

8. The king must win or lie must forfeit his crown forever. 

185. Such sentences as the preceding differ from those 
we have been studying ; for they are made up of two or 
more simple sentences combined. Instead of one predicate 
and the subject of it, they have two or more predicates 
each with a subject of its own. 

EXERCISE 169. 

Copy the sentences in the preceding exercise. Place vertical lines 
before and after each conjunction, and mark each subject and each 
verb. Enclose adjectives and phrases that modify the subject, in 
curves: enclose adverbs and phrases that modify the verb, in brack- 
ets. Insert the comma where it belongs. Thus : — 

(Kind) friends have left us, | but | they -will return [soon]. 

186. Sentences made in this way, by uniting tw<> or 
more simple sentences, are called compound. 

187. A Simple Sentence is a sentence that contains only one 
subject and one predicate. 

188. A Compound Sentence is one formed by uniting inde- 
pendent sentences. 

The sentences united to form a compound sentence are called its members. 



CONJUNCTIONS. • 121 

189. Punctuation, Rule. — When the members of a 
compound sentence are connected by a conjunction, they 
must generally be separated by a comma to shoio that the 
conjunction does not join two words. Thus : — 

There were wheels to the cart 5 and the axles were strong. 

EXERCISE i70. 
Make compound sentences by uniting simple ones that have the 
following words as subjects. Punctuate carefully. 



1. New York — San Francisco. 

2. horses — camels. 

3 . water — alcohol . 



4. lead — cork. 

5. skating — tennis. 

6. silk — linen. 



190. Conjunctions are used to connect not only sen- 
tences, but also words or expressions in the same sentence 
when they are of the same kind and used in the same way. 

1. Two or more nouns or pronouns may be connected in 
one sentence ; as in, — 

Music and painting are fine arts. 
Did you ask him or her or me. 

2. Several verbs may be joined together in one sentence ; 

as in, — 

Farmers raise and sell vegetables for the market. 

3. So, too, we may wish to unite two or more adjectives 
or adverbs on phrases that modify the same word; as in, — 

The dead or dying soldiers were left behind. 
She walks gracefully and. firmly, but very slowly. 
The volume is in the book-case or on the table. 

EXERCISE 171: 
Select the conjunctions, telling which words they connect and 
what kind of words are connected. Thus : — 

" And " is a conjunction, and connects the two nouns " time" and " tide." 



122 KINDS OF WORDS. 

1. Time and tide wait for no man. 

2. Extreme poverty or great wealth may bring fame. 

3. Some trees or shrubs would improve the place. 

4. The days come and go in a ceaseless round. 

5. Some people always promise, but never pay. 

6. Who among you thinks or dreams of me? 

7. All men live and die unknown by most of their fellows. 

8. She plucked the daisies white and violets blue. 

9. Michael Angelo was a painter and sculptor. 

10. Now and then the whip-poor-will calls from the hill or the grove. 

11. You and I are old and well-tried friends. 

12. Shall we spend our time over worthless books and papers, or 
with the best authors ? 

191. A Conjunction is a word that connects sentences or 
parts of sentences. 

The word "conjunction" means that ichich joins together. 

192. Punctuation, Rule. — Two or more tvords or 
phrases of the same kind used in the same ivay should 
be separated by commas, unless conjunctions are used to 
connect them all. 

Thus : — 

Clergymen, lawyers, and doctors preach, argue, or heal. 
But in the sentence — 

We met them in Pittsburg and in Detroit and in Chicago, 

each phrase is connected to the following one by a conjunction, and 
no commas are needed. [See § 165.] 

EXERCISE 172. 
1. Write simple sentences containing the following groups of 

safely 

quickly 
pleasantly 



words : — 








he 


fly 


red 


patient 


you 


walk 


white 


firm 


i 


swim 


blue 


kind 



INTERJECTIONS. 123 

2. Write a complete sentence in answer to each question. Punc- 
tuate carefully. 

1. Who were the first three presidents of the United States? 

2. What kinds of grain grow in the Mississippi Valley? 

3. What are three of the duties of a sailor? 

4. What must be done to corn in the field before it becomes meal? 

5. Of what materials is cloth made ? 



VIII. INTERJECTIONS. 

193. The seven kinds of words that we have now 
learned to distinguish make up all our sentences: for 
every word that is really part of a sentence is either a 
noun, a pronoun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb, a prepo- 
sition, or a conjunction. 

There are other words, however, that we use with sen- 
tences, but not exactly as parts of them. They are a 
different kind of language. 

Thus, if any one says — 

Oh ! you hurt me, 
the word oh is apt to be very much like a groan. So in — 

Aha ! I have found you ! 

aha takes the place of a shout ; and in the following sentences, — 

Pshaw ! what a silly reason ! 
Poh ! that's nothing. 
He came, alas! too late. 

the words pshaw, poh, and alas are about as expressive as a hiss, 
a puff, and a sigh. 

194. When we use these words we do not assert any- 
thing, and very much of our meaning comes from the tone 



124: KINDS OF WORDS. 

in which we speak: but everybody understands at once 
that we are pained or pleased, and so on, just as we tell by 
a dog's whining whether he is grieved or delighted. 

We must notice, however, that instead of making natural sounds 
to show our feelings, as animals do, we use words that are somewhat 
like such sounds, and which mean the same thing. 

EXERCISE 173. 

Which words would express feeling, even if used by themselves? 



Oh ! I have ruined my friend ! 
O that I were rich again ! 
Ha ! Can you not hear it ? 



4. Iloho! Ahoy! A sail! A sail! 

5. Hurrah ! We've won a victory. 

6. Hist! The squirrel sees you. 



195. Such words are called Interjections because they 
are thrown into the midst of what we say without having 
much to do with other words. 

196. A different sort of interjection is used in expres- 
sions like this : — 

Bang ! There goes another gun ! 

where the word bang is used merely to imitate a noise. 

When we wish to represent these words by writing, we spell out 
the sounds as nearly as we can, just as we write bow-wow to repr 
the bark of a dog. 

197. An Interjection is an exclamatory word or phrase 
nsed to express a feeling or a wish or to imitate some sound. 

The word " interjection " means something that is thrown into the midst of what 
we say. 

198. Punctuation, Rule. — An interjection should be 
followed by an exclamation-point when it expresses very 
strong emotion, or when there would be a distinct pause 
in speaking. 



PABTS OF SPEECH. 125 

EXERCISE 174. 

1. Which of the following interjections can be used to express 
joy? Which to express disgust f Which imitate some natural sound? 
alas I hurrah I bravo l fie I O dear 
pshaw I ahoy j whoa | hollo | ha ha ha 

2. Use each of them in a sentence. If written, punctuate carefully. 



SUMMARY: THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

199. All the words in our language can be divided 
into these eight classes : — 



2. Pronouns) P ersons or thin g 8 

3. Yerfes — used to assert 



are always required 
to make a sentence. 



4 ' Ad aM tiVGS 1 USed ° nly t0 m ° di f y 
5. Adverbs J other worcls 



Conjunctions/**™ betw een other words 



may help 
y to form 
sentences. 



6. Prepositions ^ uged to ghow the e(mm& 
tion between othe 

used to express ) often stand 



8. Interjections , 

by themselves. 

Speaking of them by kinds or by classes in this way, we 
call them the eight Parts of Speech. 

About Interjections, however, we must remember that 
though they help to form our language, they are very 
different from all the other kinds of words; are not parts 
of sentences ; and are often used by themselves. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

SENTENCE-BUILDING. 
A. INCOMPLETE VERBS AND THEIR COMPLEMENTS. 

EXERCISE 175. 

1. (a) What must the subject of a sentence contain ? (b) What 
must the predicate contain ? (c) Define a verb, (d ) A verb-phrase, 
(e) How may verbs be modified ? 

2. In six of these sentences the meaning is complete. Which are 
they? Read the remaining six, supplying with each verb what is 
needed to complete the meaning. 



1. The wind changed 

2. The air is 

3. My friend called 

4. The skating will be 



5. We must hurry 
G. The ice was 

7. The snow melted 

8. Our fun stopped 



9. We were 

10. The night has been 

11. The gale increased 

12. Such storms are 



3. Which of the verbs would you call incomplete ? Give your reason. 



200. An Incomplete Verb is one that requires the 
addition of another word, called the complement, to give 
the sentence meaning. 

EXERCISE 176. 
Point out the verb, and show what completes the meaning. 



1. Game was scarce. 

2. Our powder was wet. 

3. We were hungry. 

4. The pond was frozen. 



5. Our hotel was distant. 

6. Our lunch-boxes were empty. 

7. Matters might have been worse. 

8. We were not disheartened. 



COPULATIVE VERBS. 



127 



I. Copulative Verbs. 



201. In each of these sentences, 
I am cold. 
He was asleep. 
They were ill. 
She is happy. 



ITou are generous. 
He slept. 
They suffered. 
He smiles. 



what is the complete predicate? In those of three words, does the 
verb or the adjective tell us more about the person mentioned ? In 
those of two words, what describes the person mentioned ? 

Each of the verbs slept, suffered, smiles, is enough to 
give us some information ; but the verbs — 
am, was, were, is, are, 

only begin to tell us something that is expressed mostly 
by the adjectives. Of course there is no assertion without 
the verb ; but in He was asleep, the adjective, being the 
word that describes what the subject names, is so im- 
portant, that the verb seems incomplete without it. The 
two words together — was asleep — are very much like 
the single verb in He slept, for that means about the same 
tiling. 

EXERCISE 177. 

1. (a) Select the verbs, and tell which of them are modified by 
adverbs or prepositional phrases. (6) Which are incomplete, and 
what complements are added to them to describe what the subject 



1. Some grapes are sweet. 

2. They grow in the south. 

3. The wind will be cold. 

4. Celluloid is inflammable. 

5. His remarks were instructive. 

6. Xot all birds are migratory. 

7. The wind sighs plaintively 

around her grave. 



8. Delays are often dangerous. 

9. The crocus blooms in the 

spring. 

10. The early laws were severe. 

11. My requests for dismissal have 

been useless. 

12. The polar regions are unin- 

habitable. 



128 SENTENCE-BUILDING. 

2. Copy the preceding sentences, placing under the subject a wavy 
line, under the verb a straight line, and under the complement a 

straight line over a wavy line. Thus: — 

Some grapes are sweet. 

202. In the sentences, — 

The story seems doubtful. The clouds look stormy. 

we see incomplete verbs that by themselves have a little 
more meaning than the ones we have been studying, such 
as — am, is, are, was, were, will be, have been, etc 

But even these verbs serve principally to connect oi 
couple the subject with something that describes what 
it names, and so they are all called Copulative verbs. 

There are not many of them, but they are very frequently used. 

203. In the sentences, — 

Those men were soldiers. Boys may be heroes. 

Harrisburg is the capital. Our guide will be an Indian. 

what kind of word is added to the verb to describe what the subject 
names? AVhat two words in each sentence name the 3ame person or 
thing? 

We see that a noun, as well as an adjective, may bo 
used with the verb as a sort of second name, to describe 
what the subject stands for, or to explain what is meant. 

204. A noun used as complement with a copulative 
verb is called a 'predicate noun, [^ev $ 1 -">'».] 

EXERCISE 178. 

1. Point out the copulative verb with its subject and comple- 
ment, telling whether the hitter is a mum <>r an adjective. Thus: — 



TRANSITIVE VERBS. 



129 



In the second sentence " was " is the copulative verb, having the noun " trouble " for 
its subject, and the noun " poverty " for its complement. 

1. The man was poor. 



2. His trouble was poverty. 

3. The water of the ocean is salt. 

4. Yonder vessel must be a 

schooner. 

5. Farmers are independent. 

6. Every barrel seems full. 

7. Diamonds are costly. 

8. Pure air is exhilarating. 

9. Quartz is a mineral. 

10. Our friends look anxious. 

11. The lecture to-morrow will be 

short. 



12. The cat's claws were sharp. 

13. Turtles are amphibious. 

14. The ship of the desert is the 

camel. 

15. Tigers are carnivorous. 

16. Tigers are flesh-eaters. 

17. Henrietta shall be queen. 

18. The boy is the shoemaker's 

best friend. 

19. Idle boys become poor men. 

20. The sound of the evening bells 

was sweet. 

21. The night grows dark. 



2. Copy those of the preceding sentences that have nouns as com- 
plements. Underline subject and verb as heretofore, and under the 
noun complement place a wavy line over a straight line. Thus : — 

Yonder vessel is a schooner, 



205. A Copulative verb is one tliat has a complement that 
describes what the subject names. 

The word " copulative " means coupling or connecting. 

EXERCISE 179. 

Write sentences having the following words as complements of 
copulative verbs. Use the marking as in preceding exercises. 



mineral 


old-fashioned 


fatigued 


Frenchman 


combustible 


mechanic 


librarian 


skilful 


liquid 


ingenious 


Japanese 


patriot 




2. Transitive Verbs. 






EXERC 


SE 180. 





1. Try to complete the sentences that seem unfinished, and ex- 
plain why they seem so. 



130 



SEN TENCE-BU ILD I XG . 



1. It is raining 

2. Who opened 

3. We can look for eggt 

4. Come to the barn 

5. I will bring 

6. We shall easily find 



7. The nests are in the hay 

8. Yesterday 1 had a fall 

9. Somebody fired 

10. I was frightened 

11. Of course I broke 

12. The fall almost killed 



2. Do any of them lack the verb ? What kind of word is needed? 



EXERCISE 181. 
1. Give the complete predicate of each of these sentences : — 



1. The bright sun rises. 

2. The March winds blow. 

3. A robin sings on the bough. 

4. The lilacs blossom. 

5. The weather was mild. 

6. The skies are clear. 



7. The trees shed their Leaves. 

8. Farmers sell butter. 

9. Hail destroys the crops. 

10. The archer bends the bow. 

11. The ground looks white. 

12. Our summer is over. 



2. («) Which of these verbs assert that what the subject names 
does something, or performs some action? (/>) Which represents the 
actor as doing something to a person or to anything else? (c) What 
action is asserted of the winds? (d) What word in the ninth sen- 
tence tells what the hail does? (e) What does the hail acl upon? 
(/) Who performs the action of bending? (//) What object n 
the action ? ({) What is the object of " shed " ? (j) Of « sell " ? 



Give the object of these verbs 
what receives the action : — 

1. I have sold my yacht. 

2. He has bought a farm. 

3. Who wrote the prescription ? 

4. The Pilgrims left their native 

land. 



EXERCISE 182. 

that is, tell the word that shows 



5. They founded a new nation. 

6. The engine has broken a rail. 

7. Who will take the tickets? 
s. We cannol speak French.. 

!). Ask fin' meaning of the Avord. 



206. In nearly all the sentences in Ex. 181, the verb 



TRANSITIVE VERBS. 131 

alone gives considerable information about the subject; 
but yet it would seem very incomplete to say, — 

The trees shed. Farmers sell. Hail destroys. 

for any one would wait to hear what the trees shed, what 
the farmers sell, and so on. 

We see, then, that there are still other verbs, such as shed, 
sell, destroys, bends, that we must call incomplete, since they 
have so much need of an object to fill out the meaning. 

207. These verbs assert that some action is performed 
that passes over to and affects something else. The com- 
plement shows who or what it is that receives this action. 
So they are called Transitive — which means "passing 
over." 

208. We cannot tell whether a verb is transitive or not except by 
its use, for sometimes the verb without an object expresses as much 
as we wish to say, or else it has a different meaning. 

EXERCISE 183. 

Tell whether the verb is transitive or intransitive; i.e., whether 
it has an object or not. 



1. That blind man never saw. 

2. I saw my friend on his return. 

3. The bells ring merrily over the 

snow. 

4. The sexton rings the bell. 

5. The trees sway in the wind. 

6. How the wind sways the trees ! 



7. Our national flag flies from the 

mast-head. 

8. The schooner in the offing flies 

a signal of distress. 

9. The farmer ploughs his fields. 
10. The ships plough through the 

waves. 



209. A Transitive verb is one that has a complement show- 
ing who or what receives the action. 

210. The complement of a transitive verb is called its 
Object. 



132 SENTENCE-BUILDING. 

211. Copulative and transitive verbs are the only ones 
that always need complements. Most others are complete 
in themselves. 

If we say, — 

The sun rises. The lilacs blossom. 

the idea is complete without adding anything; for nobody could ask 
what the sun rises, or what the lilacs blossom. The rising or the blos- 
soming does not necessarily affect anything else. 

EXERCISE 184. 
1. (a) In the following sentences, which verbs assert an action 
that is complete in itself? (b) Which assert actions performed 
on or received by some person or thing ? Give their complements. 



5. Perseverance brings success. 

6. Sugar grows in Louisiana. 

7. Old Ironsides at anchor lay. 

8. Many fruits ripen in September. 



1. The morning dawned. 

2. The bridge fell at noon. 

3. The choppers fell the trees. 

4. The hunter lost the trail. 

9. Our expected friends have arrived. 

10. The angry man should control his passion. 

11. "We should hide the faults of others. 

12. The grass withers, and the flowers fade. 

13. Time and tide wait for no man. 

11. The first gun at Sumter aroused the nation. 
15. The melancholy days have come. 
10. The city of Florence contains many pal; 
17.».The farmers sow their seed in the spring. 

18. If you plant in youth, you will reap in age. 

19. He will spend the winter in Spain. 

20. The fire in the woods burned for several days. 

21. A fearful gale blew the ship out of its course. 

2. Copy some of the preceding sentences, marking the subject and 
the verb as before. Under the object draw two straight lines; thus, — 

The choppers fell the trees. 
212. A Complete verb is one that requires no complement. 



COMPLEMENTS. 133 

EXERCISE 185. 

1. Use the following in sentences, first as complete verbs, and 
then as transitive verbs, as in Ex. 183: — 

write I set I reap I cheat I give 

rides | succeed | learns | lose I sail 

2. Select the verbs in Exs. 143 and 146, and tell whether they are 
complete, copulative, or transitive, and why. 

EXERCISE 186. 

1. Construct sentences, using the following as subjects of com- 
plete verbs : — 

lightning j war I time I spiders 

moon I smoke | clocks | petroleum 

2. Use the following as subjects of transitive verbs : — 

reporters I avalanche I artists I locomotives 

electricity | physicians | bankers | earthquakes 

3. Use the same words as objects of transitive verbs. 

4. Write five sentences containing copulative verbs with adjec- 
tives as complements. 

5. Write five with noun complements. 

3. Complements. 

213. We have learned that there are two kinds of 
complements : — 

I. The complement of a copulative verb refers to the 
subject, and is called a Subjective Complement. 

Any word or phrase that can modify a noun or a pronoun may be a 
subjective complement ; as, — 

Some plants are poisonous, (adjective) 

Your friends are musicians, (noun) 

It cannot have been he. (pronoun) 

Time is of great value. (phrase) 



134 SENTENCE-BUILDING. 

214. II. The complement of a transitive verb is the 
Object of it, and has nothing to do with the subject of 
the sentence, but only with the verb. 

(a) Any noun or pronoun may be used with a transitive verb as the 
object of it. 

(b) As adverbs and other expressions modify the verb by answering 
the questions how, when, where, etc., so the object answers the question 
tchat. Objects are the most important and necessary kind of modi- 
fiers, and this explains why they are called complements of the verb. 

215. A Complement is what must be added to an 
incomplete verb to give meaning to the sentence. 

EXERCISE 187. 

Select the complements of the verbs, and tell whether they are 
objects or subjective complements ; that is, whether they refer to the 
subject or only modify the verb. 



1. Rivers to the ocean run. 

2. The reason is very plain. 

3. The stars look very small. 

4. Our souls are immortal. 



5. I can find no fault with him. 

6. A long rain will be welcome. 

7. No one is ever too old to learn. 

8. Every day brings its own duties. 



9. Good habits are most easily formed in youth. 

10. We are the heirs of past generations. 

11. A man's actions show his character. 

12. The greatest English poet is Shakespeare. 

13. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 

14. The betrayer of his country is a traitor. 

15. Every man must educate himself. 

16. Agriculture is the parent of all industries. 

17. Mountain chains rob the winds of their moisture. 

18. Wisdom's ways are ways of pleasantness. 

19. The violets open their soft blue eyes. 

20. Of all our senses sight is the most important. 

21. In France and Germany sugar is made from beets. 

22. Despatch is the soul of business. 



THE BASE OF A SENTENCE. 135 

B. THE BASE OF A SENTENCE. 

216. The materials that we must have for making 
the shortest of sentences are — a subject with a noun or 
a pronoun in it ; and a predicate with a verb in it. 

(«) Two ivords are required; something talked about, 
and something said ; as, — 

Night comes. Hope departs. Life ends. 
Look you! "Who calls? 

(&) But when the verb is incomplete, that is, when the 
sentence would be almost meaningless without some other 
word in the predicate, then three words at least are re- 
quired; as, — 
"We are children. Youth is hopeful. Love makes friends. 

(c) When instead of a verb we have a verb-phrase, the 
number of essential words may be still larger ; as, — 
Drinking may have caused death. 

217. In every simple sentence there are these two or 
three foundation elements, upon which all the rest is built 
up, and which we call the Base. 

218. The Base of a Sentence, or what it needs more 
than anything else to give it meaning, consists either of 
two parts or elements : — 

Subject, Complete Verb ; 

or of three parts : — 

\ Subjective 



Subject, Copulative Verb, 

Complement; or, 

Subject, Transitive Verb, Object. 



136 SENTENCES-BUILDING. 



EXERCISE 188. 

1. Read the base of each sentence, or mark it by underlining its 
elements in this way : — 



Under the subject draw a wavy line > 

Under the verb draw a straight line 

Under the object draw two straight lines : 



Under the subjective complement draw a straight line with a 
wavy line — 

Under it for adjectives ; 

Over it for nouns or pronouns "~-~— ~~. Thus: — 

The sun always shines somewhere. 

Your favor will be very acceptable. 

1900 will not be a leap-year. 

The sentinel stars set their watch in the sky. 



1. Our good deeds live after us. 

2. Seconds are the gold-dust of time. 

3. The orbit of the earth is elliptical. 

4. An artist's studio should be his workroom. 

5. He mixes his paints on a palette. 

6. Vaccination may prevent the small-pox. 

7. Most male citizens over twenty-one can vote. 

8. At sea the distant clouds seem low. 

9. The old mayor climbed the belfry tower. 

10. Joan of Arc perished at the stake. 

11. Regret for a misspent past will be useless. 

12. My workmen were once my employers. 

13. A collection of curiosities may become a museum. 

14. The miser willed his property to a college. 

15. Stone walls do not a prison make. 

16. Young hearts never grow old. 

17. Foolish people often feel wise. 

18. The Muses were the goddesses of art. 

2. Treat other exercises in the same way, until the base of \ 
tence can be recognized and described very readily. 



ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. 137 



C. MODIFIERS. 

EXERCISE 189. 

1. What is a sentence? An assertion? What are the essential 
parts of one ? 

2. How many and what kinds of words must be used to make an 
assertion ? 

3. Illustrate from these sentences the meaning of "subject," 
"verb," "complement," "base," "modifier," and "adjective." 

Cowardly men are generally poor soldiers. 
These fine steamers now make regular trips. 

4. What kind of steamers is meant ? Which ones ? 

5. What words modify the verbs ? What word describes the trips? 

6. How would you say the subject and the object are modified? 

219. Sometimes our sentences consist of only the two 
or three words that we have called the base : but generally 
we find it necessary to modify some part of the base in 
order to express our meaning exactly. 

Thus, instead of " Sheep furnish wool," or " They came," we might 
wish to say, "My son's sheep, a foreign breed, furnish wool of fine 
quality" or " They unexpectedly came yesterday \ from toivn | to ivelcome 
us." 

220. Any word or group of words that qualifies another 
word, or explains its application, is called a Modifier. 

By adding modifiers to the base, we build up fuller sentences, and 
it is about the construction or building up of sentences that we 
are to study now. 

1. Adjectives as Modifiers. 

221. We know that the subject, the object, and some- 
times the subjective complement, is a noun or a pronoun, 
and that adjectives may modify nouns wherever they 
occur; hence we conclude that — 



138 SENTENCE-BUILDING. 

Adjectives may be added to either the subject or the 
complement as modifiers. Thus : — 

Australian sheep furnish fine wool. 

These | black sheep furnish some | valuable wool. 

Glass is a brittle, transparent substance. 

EXERCISE 190. 

1. (a) Classify each sentence; that is, tell its kind, (b) Read 
the base, (c) Point out the subject and its modifiers. (7/) Point 
out the verb, (e) Point out the complement, tell its kind, and 
give its modifiers. Thus : — 

The first is a simple, assertive sentence. Its base is dogs respect masters. The sub- 
ject dogs is modified by the adjective savage. The verb is respect. The object master* 
ie modified by the adjective stem. 

8. An uncontrolled appetite is a 
relentless master. 

9. The Polish salt mines seem 
inexhaustible. 

10. The longest day has an end. 

11. Your barking dogs are cow- 
ardly. 

12. Destructive freshets have in- 
jured the late crops. 

13. Is that snow-capped mountain 
an extinct volcano? 

14. Tell no long stories. 



1. Savage dogs respect stern 

masters. 

2. Coming events cast long- 

shadows. 

3. Has any man a heavy coat ? 

4. Take the broad, open path. 

5. Such long journeys are tire- 

some. 

6. A low barometer indicates 

stormy weather. 

7. Hidden fire makes black 

smoke. 



2. Copy the preceding sentences, and mark the base as before. 
Enclose each subject-modifier in curves ( ), and each complement- 
modifier in angles ( ). 1 Thus: — 

(These) sheep have (long) horns. 

1 To the Teacher. — This simple method of marking the analysis of sentences will 
be found very useful in ordinary written work, as well as in illustrative blackboard 
exercises. 

Every subject is to be marked with a wavy line, every verb with a straight line. 
The complement is always marked with two lines, — both also straight for the object, 
since that modifies only the verb; but one of them wavy for the subjective complement, 



ADVERB MODIFIERS. 



139 



3. Write sentences to show the use of adjectives as part of the base. 

4. Write six that illustrate their use as modijiers^oi different parts 
of the base. 

2. Adverbs as Modifiers. 

222. Besides a noun or a pronoun, the base of a sen- 
tence always, as we know, contains a verb, and it some- 
times contains an adjective as the complement of the verb. 
We know, too, that if a verb or an adjective needs a modi- 
fier to finish the meaning, an Adverb may be used. E.g. : — 

The man approached cautiously. 
Children sometimes make mistakes. 

where the verbs are modified ; and — 

Some pine trees are perfectly straight. 
The old elm was almost dead. 

where the adjective complements are modified. 

EXERCISE 19!. 
1. Point out the principal parts of each sentence and their modi- 
fiers, as in the preceding exercise. 



1. All the bells ring mournfully. 

2. Some faces look very sad. 

3. The whistle always shrieks 

wildly. 

4. The summons is quite welcome. 

5. This spot is delightfully cool. 

6. Such bright days rarely come. 

7. The officers were criminally 

negligent. 



8. He probably came here lately. 

9. Those stories are hardly cred- 

ible. 

10. The sun always shines brightly 

somewhere. 

11. Most early navigators were 

very venturesome. 

12. I have been too idle hereto- 

fore. 



since that is not only a part of the predicate, but is also related to the subject. The 
predicate noun is distinguished from the predicate adjective by placing the wavy line 
first. 

Every subject-modifier of whatever kind is to be enclosed in curves ( ), every verb- 
modifier in brackets [ ], and every complement-modifier in angles ( ). 

Independent expressions are to be left unmarked. 



140 SENTENCE-BUILDING. 

2. Copy each sentence, underline the base, and mark the modifiers. 
Put verb-modifiers in brackets [ ]. Thus : — 

(Those) ships [frequently] make (long) voyages. 
We are [never] (entirely) alone. 

3. Write four sentences illustrating the use of adverbs as modifiers 
of different parts of the base. 

3. Adjective and Adyerb-Phrasi 

223. We have built up a sentence by modifying the 
base with adjectives and adverbs. The next step will be 
to give to these added words modifiers of their own. 

Thus, instead of high, always, and many, in — 

High winds always injure many trees, 

we may modify each with an adverb (§§ 171, 172), and say, — 

Unusually high winds almost always destroy very many trees. 

Here it is easy to see that " destroy," for instance, is modified not by 
always alone, but by the phrase almost always, since the adverb 
almost is added to show that we do not mean quite always. 

How is " winds " modified ? " Trees " ? Does very many take the 
place of an adjective or an adverb? What may adverbs modify? 

(a) These little phrases ("unusually high," etc.) are 
used as modifiers very much like single words ; and when 
a noun or a verb has several modifiers, some of them may 
be words and some phrases. Thus : — 

Some | large | thrifty | rather graceful | trees. 

They unexpectedly came slowly and very quietly. 

EXERCISE 192. 

1. Give the base of each sentence and its modifiers. Select the 
modifiers that are phrases, and tell whether they are like adjectives 
or like adverbs. 



PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. 141 

1. Very few persons are perfectly happy. 

2. We beheld the dark blue sky. 

3. Will forgetful boys become good business men? 

4. He displayed intensely disagreeable manners. 

5. Hereafter I shall study more diligently. 

6. Some rather dull boys have become very famous men. 

2. Copy, and mark the base and modifiers. Thus : — 

(This) (same) person [very recently] made (a) (rather tire- 
some) speech. 

3. Write four sentences containing modified adjectives and 
modified adverbs. 

224. 1. An adjective with all that modifies it is called 
an Adjective phrase. 

2. An adverb with all that modifies it is called an 
Adverb-phrase. 

(a) When an adjective or an adverb takes a modifier of any sort, we 
have a phrase ; as, beautiful in color, suitable for driving, where 
an adjective is modified by a prepositional phrase (§ 225) ; also, 
a little cautiously, ten feet further, where an adverb is modified 
by a noun-phrase (§ 308) . 

4. Prepositional Phrases. 

225. There are several other kinds of modifying expres- 
sions which have the meaning and use of adjectives and 
adverbs. 

226. A Prepositional Phrase may always be used like 
an adjective or adverb. Thus : — 

As part of the base, like a predicate adjective : 

Our utensils were of wood (= wooden). 

These savages are from Africa (= African). 



142 SENTENCE-BUILD LNG. 

As modifiers : 

The low mountains {of Vermont) contain marble. 
The layers, or beds, extend [for miles]. 
They show great difference (in color). 
I am happy (beyond measure). 
Burns was a man (of genius). 

What part of the base does each phrase modify? What modifiers 
are there besides the phra 

EXERCISE 193. 
1. Copy, underline the base, and mark the modifiers, as in pre- 
ceding exercises. 

1. The boyhood of Lincoln was spent in poverty. 

2. The path of industry is the path to success. 

3. The needle of the compass may not always point toward the 
north. 

4. The invention of letters was attributed to the Phoenicians. 

5. The Queen of Sheba saw the wisdom of Solomon. 

6. Twenty slaves were brought to Virginia in 1619. 

7. Lincoln emancipated the slaves in 1863. 

8. The weight of evidence is against you. 

9. A dull, heavy cloud of vapor hangs gloomily in the sky above 
our heads. 

2. How many words are needed to make a prepositional phrase? 
Of what kind must they be? Tn the ninth sentence, how many modi- 
fiers has " cloud " ? How many has " hangs " ? 

227. Modified Prepositional Phrases. The base of 

the phrase, that is, the preposition with its object alone, 
does not always make a complete modifier, any more than 
does an adjective or an adverb alone. Thus : — 

•• Wise men" means the same as "men of wisdom" bui -very wise 
men" would mean "men of great wisdom,*' a modifier being added to 
the object. So too in " The state is rich in forests of pine " the object 
in the phrase " in forests" is modified by another phrase "of pine." 



CHANGES OF FORM. 



143 



228. These examples show how the object of a prep- 
osition may be moclified; and we must remember that a 
noun may alivays have modifiers, no matter how or where 
it is used. 

(a) A modifier of any part of the base may be called a primary 
modifier; a modifier of what is already a modifier may be called a 
secondary modifier. 

EXERCISE 194. 

1. Give the base of each phrase; i.e., the leading preposition 
and its object, and tell how each object is modified. 

1. in the near future. 

2. without many friends. 

3. after very long delay. 

4. with few signs of failure. 

5. the icy, rattling crags among. 

6. in the centre of the solar sys- 

tem. 



7. along the shores of the broad 
Pacific. 

8. near the sources of the longest 
river of Africa. 

9. after a cold, cheerless journey 
in the rain. 

10. two mounds of snow between. 
2. Write six sentences in which prepositional phrases are used to 
modify the three different parts of the base. 



Changes of Form to Modify Meaning. 

EXERCISE 195. 

1. In the expression — 

a tree surrounded by trees, 

would you say that the same noun occurs twice, or that there are two 
nouns almost alike? What difference do you see? Is there a differ- 
ence in sound ? What is the difference in meaning ? 

2. Select the forms in this list that are used when only one is 

meant : — 



cloud 
feet 

fly 

flood 



man 


horses 


children 


foot 


knives 


flies 


rivers 


men 



stage 
judges 
clock 
fire 



rose 

monkeys 
pen 
monks 



3. Which of them are used when we speak of more than one ? 



144 



SENTENCE-BUILDING. 



221). We see from the preceding exercise that a noun 
may he modified not only by adding a word, but also by 
changing its form according as it applies to one or to 
more than one. 

One form is called the Singular, because it applies to a 
single one only. The other form is called the Plural, 
because it applies to more than one. Thus: — 



Singular : 
Plural : 



head, 

Leads. 



eye, 
eyes, 



face, 



dress. 



foot. 

feet. 



230. The Plural is generally made by adding s or ek 

to the singular. 

EXERCISE 196. 

About each of the following words say whether it is singular or 
plural, and then give the other form : — 



vane 


ba^in 


halves 


children 


Germans 


sponges 


potato 


taxes 


turkeys 


pailfuls 


mason 


niece 


sheaves 


grass 


nephew 


swords 


crutch 


mosquitoes 


women 


dishes 


brushes 


lilies 


glasses 


kisses 


geese 


matches 


oxen 


men 


knives 


chimneys 



5. Possessives : Modifiers of Another Kind. 

231. Sometimes a word is adjective by nature, like 
those we have been studying; hut a word that seems to 
be something else may be also adjective by use. 
In these sentences — 

Edward's bicycle has just broken down, 
They heard the horse's hoofs, 
Your yacht was in the race, 

can you find any words used like adjectives? Do they seem at all like 
nouns or verbs? To whom did the bicycle belong? What hoofs were 
heard ? AVho owned the yacht ? 



POSSBSSIVES. 145 

232. Such words as Edward's, horse's, your are called 
Possessives because, if the statements just made are true, 
we can say — 

Edward had, or " possessed," a bicycle, 
The horse had, or " possessed," hoofs, 
You had, or "possessed," a yacht, 

and we see that they are really nouns or pronouns changed 
a little from the common form, and used like adjectives to 
describe the thing mentioned by showing to whom or to 
what it belongs. 

EXERCISE 197. 

1. Mention all the possessives, and tell what nouns they modify : — 

1. England's navy is very powerful. 

2. Men's good deeds may live forever. 

3. Children's manners show their training. 

4. Napoleon ended his days at St. Helena. 

5. We decorate her grave with flowers. 

6. Your money will be used for soldiers' monuments. 

7. Is there a proverb about kings' daughters ? 

8. Greenland's warm climate is its greatest treasure. 

9. Winter's rude tempests are gathering now. 

10. Wisdom's ways are ways of pleasantness. 

11. You'll find hornets' nests there. 

12. Does Ecuador's largest coin equal our double eagle ? 

2. Change the possessive nouns to prepositional phrases, thus : — 

" Greenland's climate" means "The climate of Greenland." 

3. Analyze the sentences by marking base and modifiers. 

233. To make the possessive form, nouns commonly 
take an apostrophe and s [ ? s] ; but if an s has already 
been added to make the word plural, they take only an 
apostrophe [']. [The pronouns are changed in various 
ways : you, your ; they, their ; lie, his ; I, my ; she, 
her, etc.] 



146 



SENTENCE-BUILDING. 







EXERCISE 198. 




Give the 


possessive form of each noun. To which should 


add only an 


ipostrophe? Why? 






fox 


ox 


Charles 


Mary 


Frances 


foxes 


oxen 


James 


Rufus 


Agnes 


armies 


man 


Mrs. Jones 


scissors 


valley 


army 


men 


thief 


Mr. Davis 


valleys 


calves 


wives 


thieves 


Miss Kelly 


heroes 


calf 


wife 


sister 


torches 


children 


lady 


mice 


sisters 


monarch 


mouse 


ladies 


sheaf 


fishes 


jury 


brothers 



you 



234. A Possessive is a special form of a lionn or a pronoun 
used like an adjective to show whose property is meant. [§ 296.] 



6. Appositives : Nouns used as Second Names. 

235. Another sort of modifier appears in th;s example : 

This man is James Hooper, treasurer. 

The nouns James Hooper and treasurer evidently refer to the 
same person, and we understand that James Hooper is treasurer. So, 
; of two men who are machinists, we might say : — 

Hardy and Greene, machinists, have just failed. 



EXERCISE 

In the following sentences : — 



199. 



My brother Rudolphu:> is coming home. 

I, William, am to be married. 

William Shakespeare, poet, died in 1G16. 

William Shakespeare, confectioner, lives in D street. 

We had reached that great wheat market, Chicago. 

what word shows which brother is meant? Which show who is meant 
by "William Shakespeare"? By "I"? In the fifth find two names 
for one thing. 



APPOSITIYES. 147 

236. A noun is often added to another noun to de- 
scribe or explain its meaning, when one name is not 
enough. 

The noun thus added is called an appositive, and is just 
as much a modifier as an adjective is, though, unlike an 
adjective, it almost always follows the word it modifies. 

The word appositive means " put by the side of." 

EXERCISE 200. 
1. Select the appositives, and tell to what words they refer. 

1. The historian Macanlay wrote " The Lays of Ancient Rome." 

2. The river Nile overflows its banks annually. 

3. The sixth month, July, was named in honor of Julius Cajsar. 

4. The children's favorite was the monster elephant, " Jumbo." 

5. The New England festival, Thanksgiving, comes in November. 

6. The capital of Xew Hampshire, Concord, is on the Merrimac. 

7. We boys have neglected our lessons. 

8. She advised us girls to be patient. 

9. You carpenters have a busy life. 

2. Make sentences, using the first five appositives as subjects 
modified by appositives. 

237. Au Appositive is a second name added to a noun or a 
pronoun to explain or describe what is meant. 

7. Possessive and Appositive Phrases. 

238. Possessive and appositive phrases will be easy 
for us to understand because, like adjective and adverb 
phrases, they are only possessives and appositives, with 
their modifiers. 

239. We must remember that possessives and apposi- 
tives are only used like adjectives ; they are not what we 
call adjectives, but are really nouns or pronouns. Hence 



148 SENTENCE-BUILDING. 

they have the same modifiers that other nouns and pro- 
nouns have. 

Thus, instead of girl's hair, we might wish to speak of 
This young Japanese girl's hair, 
using a possessive phrase in which the adjectives this, young, and 
Japanese all modify the possessive girVs. 

So with appositives : — 

My companion, an old friend from Ohio, was very entertaining. 

Here an, old, and from Ohio are added to the appositi. 
secondary modifiers. 

EXERCISE 201. 

1. Tell which phrases in the following are appositive, and which 
possessive ; and give the modifiers in each phrase. 

1. Charles Dickens, the great English novelist, died in 1870. 

2. The Moon, the satellite of the Earth, is about two thousand 
miles in diameter. 

3. In 1807, Robert Fulton, an American engineer, sailed the first 
steamboat, the Clermont, on the Hudson. 

4. Benjamin Franklin, a distinguished American statesman, was 
born in Boston in 1706. 

5. Who would disregard a loving mother's counsel? 

6. The brave colonel's reply was, " I'll try, sir." 

7. Whittier, the Quaker poet, wrote Snow Bound, a Winter Idyl. 

8. Nathaniel Hawthorne, author of The Marble Faun, was born 
in Salem, a city in Massachusetts. 

9. Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico, was a Spaniard. 

10. Remember your last year's experiences. 

11. This is a debt of many years' standing. 

12. Now comes the morning star, day's harbinger. 

2. Analyze the preceding sentences by copying and marking. 

240. Punctuation. Rule. — Appositive words and 

phrases must generally be set off from the rest of the sen- 
tence by commas. 

For examples, Bee preceding exercises. 



SUMMAKY. 149 



EXERCISE 202. 

Make sentences containing these words modified by appositive 
■words or phrases. 

Gen. Grant I Harrisbnrg I author I Chicago 

steamboat David inventor | Amazon 



SUMMARY: MODIFIERS. 

241. We now understand how it is that a simple sen- 
tence may be very long ; for we must often modify a word 
again and again "before we can express exactly what we 
mean. 

The simplest modifiers for each part of speech are given 
below. [See §§ 620, 621.] 

Nouns and Pronouns may have for modifiers, — 

1 A Ad' fci ( w ° r ^ : Kind hearts are more than coronets. 

\ phrase : This is an extremely interesting hook. 

2. A Prepositional phrase : The life of Livingstone was one of 

self-sacrifice. 

3. A Possessive { word : His ener 9V was his only capital. 

\ phrase : Every man s work shall be manifest. 

4. An Appositive { word : The P oet Milton was bUnd " 

( phrase : Homer, the Greek poet, was blind. 

Verbs, Adjectives, and Adverbs may have for modi- 
fiers, — 

1 An Adverb I w o r <^ : He gives twice who gives quickly. 

( phrase : Shall we not strive more constantly ? 

2. A Prepositional phrase : Look not mournfully into the past. 
The other parts of speech are very rarely modified. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

SENTENCE- ANALYSIS. 

REVIEW EXERCISE. 203. 

1. Mention the three classes into which sentences are divided 
according to meaning. 2. What is a simple sentence? 3. A com- 
pound sentence? 4. Into what may every compound sentence be 
separated? 5. Every simple sentence? G. Into what may every 
enlarged subject be separated? 7. Every enlarged predicate? 

8. Name the two elements that may form the base of a sentence. 

9. The three elements. 10. What parts o'f speech may form a com- 
plement? 11. What is a modifier? 

242. While studying the building up of sentences we 
have had some practice in Analysis, or the taking apart 
of sentences ; for we have pointed out their principal 
parts, and have shown how each is modified. 

243. Analysis is the process of separating a sentence into 
its parts, and of showing what they have to do with one another. 

244. Method. If, in analyzing a simple or a com- 
pound sentence, we treat modifying phrases as single 
words, the structure of it can be made clear either orally 
or in writing, by telling in this order — 

1. The kind of sentence. 

2. The kind of sentences united to form it. 

3. The base of the Jirst assertion, question, or command. 

4. The subject and its modifiers. 

5. The verb and its modifiers. 

6. The complement and its modifiers. 

7. The base of the second, — subject, verb, complement. 

8. The conjunctions. 

9. The independent expressions. 



METHOD. 151 

Model for Analysis. "A fool speaks all his mind, but a wise man 
reserves something for hereafter." 

1. This is a compound assertive sentence, 

2. Formed by uniting two simple assertions. 

3. The base of the first assertion is fool speaks mind. 

4. The subject fool is modified by the adjective a. 

5. The verb speaks is modified only by its object mind. 

6. The object mind is modified by the adjective all, and by the 



7. The base of the second assertion is man reserves something. 

8. The subject man is modified by the adjectives a and wise. 

9. The verb reserves is modified by the prepositional phrase for 
hereafter. 

10. The object something is unmodified. 

11. The conjunction but unites the two assertions. 

245. A phrase may be analyzed by telling — 

1. Its kind. 

2. What it modifies. 

3. Its base (i.e. the word from which it is named, and the comple- 
ment of it, if there is one). 

4. The modifiers of the base. 

Thus, in the sentence — 

De Soto (the discoverer of the Mississippi) was buried [in its 
waters] , — 
we may say that the discoverer of the Mississippi is — 

1. An appositive phrase, 

2. Modifying the noun De Soto. 

3 and 4. The base discoverer is modified by the adjective the and 
by the prepositional phrase of the j 



246. A simple form of written analysis is that already given on 
page 79. Thus : — 

(A) fool speaks (all) (his) mind, | but | (a) (wise) man reserves 
something [for hereafter]. 



152 SENTENCE-ANALYSIS. 

247. Secondary modifiers may be joined to what they modify 
by lines, straight or curved, an arrow-head .showing the modified word. 

Thus:— 

* t I I I J 

[During the distress of -the- American-army], Richard Venable, 



l 1 * . . J I 

(an army commissioner), took [from James Hook, a Scotchman], 

I t 

i J I I * 
(two) steers [for the use of-the-troops] . 

Inverted Order. 

248. Although the form and the meaning of the words 
that make a sentence help us to understand the construc- 
tion of it, yet we depend chiefly upon the arrangement 

of its parts, which is commonly much the same in differ- 
ent sentences. 

The usual order, however, is often changed or inverted 
for the sake of emphasis or clearness, and, in poetry, for 
many other reasons. 

EXERCISE 204. 
1. Where is a complement usually placed? 2. What is the usual 
position of the modifiers of a verb t Give examples. 3. Does an adjec- 
tive generally precede its noun or follow it':' 4. Are possessive* and 
appositives used before or after the words they modify? 5. What 
modifiers may an adjective have? Give examples to show the usual 
order. 6. When one adverb modifies another where is it placed? 
7. Where are prepositions and conjunctions placed? 

249. The subject often follows the verb — 

(ct) In assertive sentences, as : — 

Flashed all their sabres bare Dark was the night. Fiercely blew 
the wintry wind. Down the hillside ran a brook. There was a dense 
fog. There is no help for us. 

(b) In interrogative tally when the interrogative 

word forms no part of the subject; as in. — 



INVERTED ORDER. 153 

Were others present? Whom did you see? When shall we be 
free? Which island do the French own? For what are they con- 
tending? Is there no hope? 

Such sentences of course almost always begin with the interroga- 
tive expression, whether pronoun, adjective, adverb, or prepositional 
phrase. 

(c) In sentences expressing a condition or a wish, like, — 
Were that to happen, I could not go. May nothing prevent. May 
there be enough for all. 

As shown in these examples, it is not the verb that is 
ordinarily put first in inverted sentences, but rather some 
complement or modifier of it, if there is one. And, as 
shown in the last examples in each group, we frequently 
begin a sentence with the adverb " there," when it is pro- 
nounced ther, and used without much of its original 
meaning. 

When the real subject follows the verb, the temporary subject "it" often precedes; 
as, It is best to wait. (§ 598 (a).) 

EXERCISE 205. 

1. Read each sentence, and show by your pronunciation of " there " 
whether it means " in that place," or has no definite meaning. 

2. Transpose, putting the subject first, without changing the pro- 
nunciation of " there" 

1. There goes the new boat. 2. There the pilot stands to watch 
her. 3. There will be no sorrow there. 4. There stood my old friend. 
5. There are a thousand here. 6. There was darkness over all the 
land. 7. There can be no success without effort. 

250, When there is reason for the change, modifiers 
of almost every kind may be placed in inverted order, or 
they may be separated from that part of the sentence to 
which the}^ belong ; e.g. ; — 

A maiden fair. And I the victor slew. Lean thou this staff 
upon. Slowly the day declines. For us the sun ne'er sets. 



154 SENTENCE- ANALYSIS. 

In analysis, we must be careful to transpose every part 
to its more usual place. 

(a) When modified by a phrase, an adjective usually follows its 
noun. Thus, we say, "a man ready for work," not "a ready for 
work man." 

EXERCISE 206. 

1. Read each of the following sentences, transpose into the usual 
order, and explain what changes you make. 

2. Copy, and analyze by marking thus : — 

[Up the hill] (his) horse he [hotly] urged. 

1. Here ends the tale. 2. Many are our faults. 3. A mighty king 
was he. 4. Of years agone I'm dreaming. 5. The queen hath him 
offended. 6. Of many men the names he knew. 7. To pastures new 
press we now eagerly on. 8. Within my garden bloomed a lily tall. 
9. Through the dark defile wound the long battalion slowly. 10. Here 
once the embattled farmers stood. 11. Lightly from bough to bough 
fluttered the birds in the tree-tops. 12. A vision bright at dead of 
night I saw. 13. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

EXERCISE 207. 

1. Read and transpose as in Ex. 206. 

2. Copy and make a -written analysis as in §244. 

1. Somewhere the birds are singing evermore. 

2. Pleasantly rose the sun on the village of Grand-Pre. 

3. Under the spreading chestnut-tree 
The village smithy stands. 

4. Down the broad valley, fast and far, 
The troubled army fled. 

5. There wandered a noble Moslem boy 
Through the scene of beauty in breathless joy. 

6. Safely through another week 
God has brought us on our way. 

7. Softly now the light of day 
Fades upon my sight away. 



EXERCISES. 155 

EXERCISE 208. 
Analyze the following sentences in full, orally, in writing, or 
by marking : — 

1. The human body is a study for one's whole life. 

2. Betwixt eyes and nose a strange contest arose. 

3. The streams of small pleasures fill the lake of happiness. 

4. The fate of empires depends upon the education of youth. 

5. How use doth breed a habit in a man ! 

6. The first and greatest end of education is the discipline of the 
mind. 

7. In the course of our reading we should lay up in our minds a 
store of goodly thoughts in well-wrought words. 

8. The robin and the bluebird fill all the blossoming orchards with 
their glee, and the joyous skylark gives out a flood of song among the 
clouds. 

9. Here rest the great and good in lowly graves. 

10. Many persons have no ear for music; but every one has an ear 
for skilful reading. 

11. The ruby-throated humming-bird — the loveliest one of the 
whole family — is a native of the Southern States. 

12. On the quarter-deck of the flag-ship stood Admiral Sir John 
Narborough, the first seaman in all England. 

13. In the market-place of Bruges stands the belfry old and brown. 

14. Study wisdom, and you will reap pleasure. 

15. Laziness grows on people ; it begins in cobwebs, and it ends in 
iron chains. 

16. Among the pitfalls in our way 
The best of us walk blindly. 

17. Duty points, with outstretched fingers, 
Every soul to action high. 

18. Oft on the trampling band, from crown 
Of some tall cliff, the deer look down, 

19. Silently, one by one, in the infinite meadows of heaven, 
Blossomed the lovely stars, the forget-me-nots of the angels. 

20. Hands of angels, unseen by mortal eyes, shifted the scenery of 
the heavens ; the glories of night dissolved into the glories of the dawn. 



CHAPTER XV. 

NOUNS. 

REVIEW EXERCiSE. 209. 

1. What is a noun? 2. If a word stands as subject of a sentence, 
to what parts of speech may it belong? 3. "What if it is the obj 
a verb or of a preposition? I. What do you call a word that is modi- 
fied by an adjective ? 5. How do you tell whether a word is a noun 
or not ? 

6. What kinds of words or phrases may modify a noun ? 7. Use 
" store '' as the subject of a sentence, and give it two or three modi- 
fiers. 8. Use "president" as an object, and modify it by a preposi- 
tional phrase and an appositive. 



A. KINDS. 
1. Proper Nouns. 



251. We cannot always use nouns correctly in sen- 
tences, without having some regard to the classes into 
which they are divided according to their meaning. 



EXERCISE 210. 

1. (a) Does the name " gulf " always stand for the same body of 
water? (b) To how many parts of a year may the word "month" 
apply? (c) To how many does the word " April " apply? 

2. About each of the following nouns say whether it may rep- 
resent any one of several things, or is meant to be the special name 
of one individual. 



river 

mountain 

continent 

orator 

holiday 





KINDS. 


Amazon 




city 


Vesuvius 




ocean 


Africa 




dog 


Webster 




month 


Christmas 




book 



157 



Berlin 
Atlantic 
Bruno 
August 
Jo's Boys 



3. (a) Which word in each of the following groups applies to the 
greatest number? (5) Which to the least? (c) Which are names for 



every one of a certain class ? (cZ) Which are ' 
Name another individual of each class. 
man soldier animal 

author officer quadruped 

poet general elephant 

Bryant Sheridan Jumbo 



given names 



00 



gentleman 
scholar 
teacher 
Dr. Arnold 



252. Some nouns, such as "man" or "water," repre- 
sent a thing as being of a certain hind or class, without 
showing which particular one or which part is meant. 
Other nouns are names given to designate a particular 
individual. 

Thus the noun man may apply to any one of millions of persons, " 
but the name William B. Gladstone applies to one person only. 
The name city is held in common by hundreds of places, because they 
are in some respects alike ; but Philadelphia, Chicago, Boston, 
are names given to certain cities, to be, as it were, their exclusive 
property. 

253. A name held in common by all of a kind is called 
a Common noun ; and a special name given to one indi- 
vidual for its own is called a Proper noun. 

" Proper " is derived from a word meaning one's own. 

254re Common nouns, such as clock, kitchen, tree, glass, putty, oysters, 
weight, writing, mercy, have meanings that describe things and show what they are 
by nature. 

Propei' nouns, as we use them, have no longer any meaning in themselves, and 
like the word Dick, which may name a horse, a man, a boy, a dog, or a bird, they serve 
only to designate one person, place, or thing. 

We can judge by looting at an object what common nouns to apply to it; but if it 
has a proper name, that must be learned in some other way. 



158 



EXERCISE 211. 
1. Tell which of these nouns are common and which proper : 



King- 


Solomon 


Temper 


Music 


Paris 


Rome 


Eagle 


Shasta 


Noise 


Samuel 


Ocean 


Peru 


Mitchell 


Piano 


Riches 


War 


Beauty 


Warden 


Mozart 


Mercy 


Christian 


Turk 


Italian 


Democrat 


Saint 



2. Does the last word in each column show what sort of person is 
meant? If so, these words are common nouns. 

255. A Proper Noun is a special name meant for only one 
individual. 

All other nouns are common nouns. 

256. A Common Noun is a general name for any or all of a 
certain kind. 

257. Capitals, Rule. — Proper nouns and wo 
formed from them must begin with capitals. 

(a) JVJien a proper name is made up of several parts, each one must begin with a 
capital. Ihus: — 

John Greenleaf Whittier ; the Duke of Brunswick. 



EXERCISE 212. 

1. Write the special or proper names of several individuals in each 
of the following classes : — 

River; town; volcano; governor; king: author: country; planet; 
queen; dog; historian: state; yacht; month: painter; poet; capital; 
president : book ; inventor. 

2. What are the people called who live in the following places? 
Thus : — 

"Canada," Canadians; " Genoa," Genoese. 

Canada: (ienoa: Cuba; Spain: Venice; Italy: Europe; Mexico: 
Brazil; Burmah ; China; Japan: Malta: Norway; Boston. 



KINDS. 



159 



2. Gender-nouns. 

258. Among the nouns that name living beings, many 
names show to which sex a person belongs ; as, — 

Edward, Mary, Margaret; 
and we sometimes find two nouns with no difference in 
meaning, except that one of them denotes a male and the 
other a female ; as, — 

prince, princess; son, daughter; John, Jane. 

259. All such nouns are called Gender-nouns, because 
they show which sex is meant. Those that by their form 
denote males are said to be masculine, or of the masculine 
gender ; those that denote females are said to be feminine, 
or of the feminine gender. 

260. (a) Sometimes the correlative gender-nouns are similar in 
form, the feminine ending in -ess. Thus : — 

abbot, abbess ; governor, governess ; 

actor, actress; heir, heiress; 

baron, baroness; bost, hostess; 

count, countess; Jew, Jewess; 

duke, duchess; lad, lass [contracted} ; 

emperor, empress; lion, lioness; 

god, goddess; marquis, marchioness; 

261. (b) Some words from foreign languages are changed in 
other ways. Thus : — 



master, mistress; 
negro, negress; 
priest, priestess; 
prince, princess; 
prophet, prophetess ; 
shepherd, shepherdess; 
tiger, tigress. 



administrator, administra- 
trix; 
beau, belle; 
czar, czarina; 
executor, executrix ; 



hero, heroine ; 
sultan, sultana; 
testator, testatrix; 
Augustus, Augusta; 
Charles, Charlotte; 



Francis, Frances; 
Henry, Henrietta; 
Joseph, Josephine; 
Louis, Louisa; 
Paul, Paulina. 



262. (c) Sometimes the feminine is a wholly different word 
from its corresponding masculine. Thus : — 
bachelor, maid; I lord, lady; stag, hind; 

earl, countess; monk or friar, nun; wizard, witch; 

king, queen; I sir, madam; youth, maiden. 

In tvidotver, widow, the masculine is made from the feminine. 



160 NOUNS. 

263. (d) Sometimes the first part of a compound word serves 
merely to show which sex is meant. Thus . — 

he-goat, she-bear, man-servant. 

264. (<?) With most nouns, however, the same form is used for 
both sexes, and words like poet, editor, doctor, author, may refer to a 
person of either sex, just as do parent, child, friend, cousin. 

EXERCISE 213. 

1. (a) Which of the following nouns do not show sex? (L) Tell 
whether the gender-nouns are masculine or feminine, and give the 
corresponding word of opposite gender, if there is one. 

Cousin; clerk; Edward; duchess; president; bridegroom; printer; 
empress; cashier; peacock; child; cook; czar; lass; widow; secre- 
tary; sultana; servant; nun; artist; spinster; aunt; goose; abbot; 
maiden; husband; roe; hen; landlord; laundress. 

2. Give as many general names as you can for relatives of both 

sexes; as, uncle, aunt. 

265. A Gender-noun is one that shows by its form 
which sex is meant. 

3. Collective Nouns. 

EXERCISE 214. 

1. What is the difference between a soldier and an army? 2. A 
ship and a fleet? 3. A singer and a choir? 4. Of what is a jury 
made up ? 5. A flock ? 6. A school ? 

266. Some nouns, even in the singular form, may be 
plural in meaning, and are called Collective nouns, be- 
cause they denote a collection of individuals. 

EXERCISE 215. 
Fill the blanks so as to show of what each collection is composed : — 



ABSTRACT NOUNS. 161 

1. A regiment of . 2. A crew of . 3. A swarm of . 

4. A herd of . 5. The Senate contains . 6. A family of . 

7. A team of . 8. A pair of . 9. A club of . 10. A 

troop of . 11. in the constellation. 12. on the com- 
mittee. 13. in the tribe. 14. in the pack. 

267. A Collective Noun is one that even in the singular 
form denotes a number of separate persons or things. 

EXERCISE 216. 
1. Define each word so as to show that it is a collective noun : — 
Group ; class ; council ; hive ; multitude ; jury ; fleet ; flock ; mob ; 
society; band; drove; couple; bevy; gang; horde; corps; suite. 

4. Abstract Nouns. 

268. Nouns of the classes that we- have studied represent things 
that take up room or have weight, including all living things and what- 
ever is like a solid, a liquid, or a vapor. 

269. All oilier nouns apply to what cannot take up 
room, or be weighed, or touched, or moved. Thus : — 

Motion, movement, hurry, race, speed, distance, absence. 
Beauty, color, freshness, brilliancy, gleam, warmth. 
Harmony, music, tune, discord, sound, disturbance, war. 

They are called Abstract nouns because they are names 
of qualities, etc., considered separately from the objects to 
which they belong. 

" Abstract" means drawn off, separated. 

270. Kinds. Of the many kinds of abstract nouns, the most 
important are — 

1. Nouns that name a quality or a condition; as, — 

brightness, poverty, pride, weight, flexibility. 

2. Verbal nouns, which name the action asserted by a verb ; as, — 

learning, rejoicing, loving, to swing, to skate. 



162 



xorxs. 



EXERCISE 217. 

1. Select from this list five words that may be names of actions; 
ten names of qualities or conditions. 



weakness 


industry 


hoping 


speed 


fear 


despair 


temperance 


heat Blumbei 


hunger 


singing 


haste 


reading dashing 


coasting 


2. Name 


"our qualities 


or conditions of — 


wood 


gold 


an explorer 


a good son 


aii- 


water 


a gymnast 


a great man 


camels 


music 


a miser 


an agreeable 


companion 



271. An Abstract Xoun is the name of a quality, a condi- 
tion, or an action. 

EXERCISE 218. 

1. Into what two classes may all nouns be divided ? Name three 
kinds of common nouns. 

2. There are five nouns of a kind in the following list. Which of 
them are proper nouns? Which collective'.'' Arrange the rest in 
three groups according as they are gender or abstract nouns. 

Maryland; < ireat Bear : legislature; Eliot; Frenchman: English- 
man; skill: widower: humility; audience: monk: slavery; Quito; 

knowledge; brigade; bevy; suite; Thursday; marching; duck. 



B. INFLECTION: 

CHANGES IX FORM FOB DIFFERENT I - 

272. Besides using adjectives or other modifiers to 
show just what a word represents, it is often necessary 

to change the form of the word according to its different 
uses or applications; i.e., to inflect it. 



INFLECTION. 163 

1, Number. 

273. The most common change in the form of a noun 
is that by which we express Number. [See p. 144.] 

274. Most nouns have two number-forms, the singular 

and the plural. 

The singular number denotes only one. 
The plural number denotes more than one. 

275. Rule I. — Most nouns are made plural by adding 
s to the singular. Thus : — 

chair valley zero gulf fife monarch German 

chairs valleys zeros gulfs fifes monarchs Germans 

276. Rule II. — Letters, figures, signs, etc., are made 
plural by adding 's. Thus : — 

Do not make your r's and v's alike. Cancel the 9's. Make the 
+'a and — 's larger. 

EXERCISE 2(9. 

1. (a) Is the number of syllables always the same in both singu- 
lar and plural? (b) Which of these words are pronounced with an 
additional syllable in the plural? (c) Try to discover the reason. 
(d) What is the additional syllable ? 

House ; place ; pane ; size ; noose ; plate ; fire ; bridge ; bride ; 
niche ; name ; rope ; truce ; pulse ; fence ; case ; pause ; force. 

2. Can you tell why in making these plurals we have added es 
instead of s alone? 

Losses ; taxes ; topazes ; dishes ; churches. 

277. Some nouiis end with a sound so much like that 
of s that we cannot pronounce the plural easily without 
making another syllable. Hence — 



164 NOUNS. 

278. Rule III. — Nouns ending in s, x, z, sh, or ch 

(soft) form the plural by adding es to the singular. Thus : — 
grass box topaz wish larch 

grasses boxes topazes wishes larches 

EXERCISE 220. 

"Write the plural of — 

Pass; branch; honey; tyro; clef; safe; fez; bush; patriarch; 
piano; fife; dwarf; fox; arch; medley; chimney; hoof; i and t. 

279. Some nouns require other changes to be made in 
forming the plural. 

Xotice those ending in y. Which of them end in y after a con- 
sonant? What is the change in the plural? 

fly key lily buoy story tray enemy ditty 

flies keys lilies buoys stories trays enemies ditties 

280. Rule IV. — If the singular ends in y after a con- 
sonant, y becomes ie in the plural. 

Thus: Pony, ponies: sty, sties; cry, cries; body, bodies. Also, 
soliloquy, soliloquies ; colloquy, colloquies. 

Note. Words like lady, city, etc., formerly ended in ie in the singular. 

281. Rule V. — Thirteen nouns ending in f, and three 
in fe 9 form the plural in ves. They are — 

Beef, calf, elf, half, leaf, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, staff, thief, wharf, 
wolf; knife, life, wife. (Plural, beeves, calves, elv<s: knives, etc.) 

All other nouns in f or fe are regular, adding only s. 

282. Rule VI. — About forty nouns ending in o after a 
consonant form the plural in es. 

The most common ones are — 

Buffalo, cargo, calico, eeho, embargo, flamingo, hero, mosquito, 



NUMBER-FORMS. 165 

motto, mulatto, negro, potato, tomato, tornado, torpedo, volcano, veto. 
(Plural cargoes, echoes, etc.) 

Most nouns in o (several hundred in all) are regular, 
adding only s. 

283. Rule VII. — Nine common words always form 
their plural ivithout s. They are — 

Man, men; ox, oxen; goose, geese; woman, women; foot, feet; 
mouse, mice; child, children; tooth, teeth; louse, lice. 

German, Mussulman, Turcoman, ottoman, talisman, are not compounds of man, 
and form their plural in s. 

EXERCISE 221. 

Write the plural of each word: — 

Jelly; ruby; fairy; glory; duty; victory; turkey; sheaf; chief; 
strife; money; attorney; cameo; motto; grotto; half; waif; solilo- 
quy; alley; ally; veto; solo; mouse; memento. 

284. Proper nouns, when made plural, generally fol- 
low the same rules as common nouns. Thus we write : — 

All the Beechers; the Adamses; the Alleghanies; several Mr. 
Smiths; both the Miss Hudsons; the two Gen. Johnstons ; one of the 
Dr. Davises; the Mrs. Wrights. But — 

(a) To prevent confusion, we may make the fewest changes possible 
in the forms of proper nouns, and may write (for example) the eight 
Henrys, the Marys, the two Miss Carys, instead of the Henries, the 
Maries, the Caries. 

(b) In referring to members of one family, or to partners in busi- 
ness, we may give the plural form to the title "Mr." or "Miss" 
instead of to the name itself. Thus we may say — 

Mr. Hayes, or the Messrs. Hayes; Miss Sands, or the Misses Sands. 

(c) A title is, of course, made plural when used with several names 
Thus : — 

Messrs. Long and Collins ; Misses Charlotte, Emily, and Anno, 
Bronte; Drs. Brown and White; Gens. Lee and Jackson. 



166 NOUNS. 

285. Most Compound words form their plural like 
simple words by changing the final syllable. Thus: — 

Frenchmen; greenhouses; flag-staffs; handfuls; court-yards; major- 
generals; four-in-hands; forget-me-nots; jack-in-the-pnlpits ; three- 
per-cents ; piano-fortes. 

(a) A few compounds are made plural by changing the Jirst part, 
which the rest of the word merely describes. Thus : — 

Brothers-in-law ; sisters-in-law ; sons-in-law', daughters-in-law; fathers-in-law; 
mothers-in-law ; attorneys-at-law ; attorneys-general; jwstmasters-general; command- 
ers-in-chief; generals-in-chief ; aides-de-caron; courts-martial ; cousins-german; hang- 
ers-on; lookers-on; knights-errant; men-of-war; and a few others. 

(6) Occasionally both parts are changed, as in man-servant, men- 
servants. 

EXERCISE 222. 
Spell or write the plural of these words : — 

Gentleman; grandmother; spoonful; son-in-law; handicraft; maid- 
servant; court-martial; dining-room; major-general; rope-ladder; 
eyelash; touch-me-not; go-between; stowaway; sailor-boy; outgoing; 
cupful; by-path; attorney-general; man-servant; ottoman; English- 
man ; flower-de-luce ; will-o'-the-wisp. 

286. Foreign Plurals. Many words taken without change from 
other languages retain their foreign plurals. Thus : — 

Larva, larvce ; vertebra, vertebra; ; alumnus, alumni} focus, foci; fungus, fungi; 
radius, radii; stratum, strata; axis, axes; crisis, crises; ellipsis, ellipses ; oasis, oases; 
genus, genera ; phenomenon, phenomena, etc. 

287. Some nouns have the same form for both singular and 
plural meanings. We can tell the number of such nouns only by the 
context. Among them are — 

(a) Deer, sheep, swine, alms, gross, — always singular in form. 

(b) Amends, means, odds, pains, wages, — always plural in form. 

(c) Brick, cannon, heathen, head, shot, sail ; grouse, salmon, and many 
names offish and of game; brace, score, hundred, and other words refer- 
ring to number or to quantity. These have also regular plurals with a 
meaning different from that of the singular. 



CASE. 167 

288. (a) Some nouns, from the nature of what is meant, are almost 
always singular. [See § 270.] As, — 

Wisdom, music, temperance, honesty, etc. 
(b) And some are always plural. As, — 

Ashes, annals, antipodes, measles, nuptials, scissors, shears, tidings, 
victuals, vitals, etc. 

289. (a) Some nouns are plural in form but singular in mean- 
ing. As, — 

News, gallows, and words in -ics, — politics, mathematics, ethics, etc. 

(&) And some, singular in form, may be plural in meaning. As, — 

Army, kin, committee, and other collective nouns. Also, cattle. 

290. Some nouns used in two senses have two plural forms. 

brother . brothers (by parentage) brethren (by association). 

cloth . . . cloths (kinds of cloth) clothes (garments). 

die dies (for coinage, etc.) dice (for games). 

fish . . . .fishes (regarded separately) . .fish (collectively). 
genius . . geniuses (men of genius) .... genii (supernatural beings). 
index . . indexes (tables of contents) . . indices (algebraic signs). 
pea . . . .peas (in definite number) . . .pease (by the quantity). 

penny . .pennies (single coins) pence (as a value or amount). 

staff . . . staffs (as a military term) . . . staves (in most senses). 
stamen . stamens (of flowers) stamina (support or strength). 

2. Case. 
EXERCISE 223. 

1. Tell to what part of speech " cross " belongs in each sentence, 
and how you make the distinction. 

1. The bridges cross the stream. 1 3. The emblem of the Christian 

2. He gave me a cross look. religion is the cross. 

2. («) In what six ways is the noun "Albert" used in these 
sentences? 

1. Albert has returned. 



2. This was Albert's book. 

3. Go with Albert. 



4. My brother Albert is ill. 

5. Have you met Albert ? 

6. My name is Albert. 



168 NOUNS. 

(b) How many forms does the noun have in these sentences? 
(c) Which use requires a special form? (<l) How do the forms 
differ? 

291. Besides having number-forms to show singular or 
plural meaning, nouns have also what are called Case- 
forms, according to their use in a sentence. But there is 
only one of the various uses for which a special form is 
required. 

292. Nouns have two case-forms or cases, — the gen- 
eral or common form, for all uses but one ; and the special 
or possessive form, used to show ownership or posses- 



293. The possessive form of nouns is made by adding 
to the common form an apostrophe and s [*s], or an apos- 
trophe alone ['], according to the following 

Rule. — To plural nouns ending in s add an apostrophe ; 
to all other nouns add an apostrophe and s. Thus : — 

Day's, days'; man's, men's; lady's, ladies' ; Mr. Hay's book ; Mr. 
Hayes's house ; ostrich's, ostriches'. 

Note 1. In words euding with a sound that resembles that of s, the apostrophe with 
s forms an additional syllable. Thus : — 

James's; Miss Finch's [pron. James-ez, Finch-tz], 

Note 2. The only exception to the rule occurs in such expressions as conscience' 
sake, goodness' sake, righteousness' sake, Jesus' sake, where the apostrophe 
alone is added because another s would make too many hissing sounds. 

Note 3. In forming the possessive of compound nouns or of noun-phrases, the pos- 
sessive sign is always placed at the end. [§ 285. J Thus : — 

son-in-law's, sons-in-law's ; his hrother John's death; 

Martin Luther's hymn; William the Conqueror's reign. 

1 In our language nouns once had four cases to suit different uses, but now the com- 
mon form takes the place of three of them. 



CASE-FOEMS. 169 

EXERCISE 224. 
Write the four forms of each of the following nouns. Thus : — 





Sing. 


Pluk. 


Common Form. 


child, 


children; 


Possessive Form. 


child's, 


children's. 



Girl ; woman ; wife ; monkey ; mouse ; Miss Long ; lady ; chief ; 
dwarf; ox; swine; Mr. Adams; man; hero; thief; brother; deer; 
colony; baby; piano; fox; son-in-law; German: attorney-general. 

294. The meaning of the possessive case may often be expressed 
by the use of the preposition of and its object. Thus : — 

" My uncle's death " or " The death of my uncle." 

EXERCISE 225. 

1. Write these expressions, using the possessive case instead of 
the prepositional phrase : — 



The residence of my sister. 

The wife of my brother. 

The manners of a gentleman. 

A photograph of the baby. 

The sting of a mosquito. 

The store of Mr. Brown. 

The decision of the court-martial. 

The top of the chimney. 

The retreat of the enemy. 



The singing of Miss Yokes. 
The stories of Howells. 
The lectures of Curtis. 
The novels of Dickens. 
The mother of James. 
The letters of Agnes. 
The army of Xerxes. 
The home of Adam. 
The home of Mr. Adams. 



2. Write the expressions in the first column, making every noun 
plural, and then write the equivalent possessive phrase. 

295. A possessive does not always show ownership. It may 
denote — 

1. Origin; as in — "I own Scott's novels," and "She uses But- 
trick's patterns." Or — 

2. Kind; as in — "He sells women's shoes and men's hats," and 
" She has a man's voice." 



170 NOUXS. 



C. THE USES OF NOUNS. 

EXERCISE 226. 

Analyze these sentences, and tell the way in which the noun 
" diamond " is used in each : — 

1. Diamonds are found in Africa and India. 2. Brazil exports 
diamonds. 3. Hie must precious jewel is the diamond. 4. The 
countess wore a necklace of diamonds. 5. This priceless gem, the 
Kohinoor diamond, originally weighed eight hundred carats. 6. The 
diamond's lustre is unsurpassed. 

296. There are eleven different uses which nouns may 
have in the expression of thought. Six of these uses we 
already know about. 

A Noun may be used in a sentence as — 

1. The Subject of a verb : 

The wind sic ays the tops of the trees. 
Can woodpeckers make such large holes ? 

2. The Subjective Complement of a copulative verb (or of a 
passive verb-phrase) [§ 501] : 

These trees are ancient landmarks. 

The Emperor of Russia is styled the Czar. 

3. The Object of a transitive verb (or verbal word) [^ 402] : 

We bend the branches to reach the fruit. 

4. The Object of a Preposition: 

The shadow of the tree reaches beyond the wall. 

5. An Appositive to explain another noun or a pronoun : 

Homer, the famous Greek poet, was blind. 
She mourned him, her only son. 

6. A Possessive : 

The Indian's wigwam gave place to the settler's cabin. 
This is the only use that requires a special form of the noun. 



POSSESSIVES. 171 

Rules for the Use of Possessives. 

297. Sometimes the names of several persons are 
treated like a single noun in forming the possessive. 

Thus, if Parker and "Ward is the name of a business firm, we 
treat it like a compound noun, putting the possessive sign at the end 
when we speak of Parker and "Ward's business or mills. To say 
Parker's and Ward's business or mills would show that the men 
were in business separately, or owned different mills. 

EXERCISE 227. 

In the following expressions do we mean joint owners of the same 
thing, or separate owners of different things ? 

1. Hall and Whipple's hotel. 

2. Elizabeth's and Mary's reign. 

3. William and Mary's reign. 

4. Rice and Besant's novels. 

5. Bulwer's and Thackeray's novels. 

6. Jackson's and Grant's administrations. 

7. Taylor and Fillmore's administration. 

8. Do you prefer Tennyson's or Whittier's poetry ? 

9. Who were Cain and Abel's parents ? 

298. Rule I. — (a) To shoiv separate possession of dif- 
ferent things by several persons, use the possessive sign after 
the name of each. But — 

(6) To show joint possession, use the sign after the last 
■name only. 

EXERCISE 228. 
1. Change these expressions so as to show joint possession: — 

1. Gilbert's and Sullivan's operas. 2. Woodward's and Brown's 
pianos. 3. Warner's and Twain's Gilded Age. 4. Grant's and Sher- 
man's friendship. 5. Spain's and Portugal's alliance. 6. Beaumont's 
and Fletcher's dramas. 7. Hay's and Mcolay's Life of Lincoln. 



172 nouns. 

2. Change these so as to show separate possession : — 

1. Webster and Worcester's Unabridged Dictionary. 2. Stein way 
and Chickering's pianos. 3. Green and Macaulay's History of Eng- 
land. 4. Webster and Worcester's dictionaries. 5. Do you prefer 
Greenleaf or Wentworth's arithmetics? (!. Bancroft, Prescott, and 
.Motley's History. 7. Lowell and Holmes's poems. 

3. Give two different phrases each implying that Noyes and Weeks 
own the same mine. How would you show that they own different 
mines? 

209. To express the idea of possession it is often better 
to use a, prepositional phrase than to use the possessive sign. 

In this way we may avoid awkward forms or the unpleas- 
ant repetition of hissing sounds. Thus : — 

" In the reign of Napoleon the Third " is better than 

" In Napoleon the Third's reign " ; and 
" The houses of my father's partner " sounds better than 

" My father's partner's houses." So, instead of 
" Socrates's sayings " we may say — 

" The sayings of Socrates." Hence — 

300. Rule II. — Avoid harsh or awkward expressions 
by using a prepositional phrase instead of a possess 

EXERCISE 229. 
Improve the following sentences according to Rule II : — 

1. What is the first governor of Rhode Island's name? 

2. Did you hear the senator from New York's speech ? 

3. The conductor of the freight train's excuse was insufficient. 

4. Remember my wife's sister's invitation. 

5. What is your college chum's father's business? 

6. Harper's Magazine's circulation is immense. 

7. Where are the architect of the post-office's designs. 

8. The Adamses' administration covered eight years. 

9. This is Dr. Smith's the eminent surgeon's opinion. 



INDIRECT OBJECT. 173 

EXERCISE 230. 

Point out the errors in the use of the possessive, and give the rule 
violated. 

1. Barnes' History ; mens' clothing ; a boys' kite. 

2. Lady's maids. Childrens' playthings, Everybodies' business. 

3. Where is Smith's and Jones's store ? 

4. This is the administrator of the estate's office. 

5. The January St. Nicholas's illustrations are admirable. 

6. Scott and Abbott's estimate of Napoleon differ greatly. 

7. Do you prefer Smith or Kitto's Bible Dictionary ? 

8. What do you think of the captain of the Dauntless's skill? 

9. Which is larger, the Mayflower or the Genesta's jib? 
10. This is Dr. Hill, the professor of rhetoric's opinion. 

301. A possessive noun does the work of a phrase or of an adjec- 
tive, and, like an adjective, may be used without the noun it modifies, 
as in " This poem is Longfellow's. [See § 361.] 

7. Nouns as Indirect Object. 

302. A noun may be used as the Indirect Object of a 
verb. Thus : — 

We have sent, the superintendent an invitation. 

EXERCISE 231. 
1. Mention the object of each verb, and tell to whom or for whom 
something was done. 

1. They gave a whip to the driver. 2. He paid a hundred dollars 
to physicians. 3. I bought a horse for my brother. 4. Who painted 
the picture for your friend? 5. I asked questions of the teacher. 
6. We made a call on the Czar. 7. They gave the driver a whip. 
8. She built the king a castle. 9. We offered the lady a glass of 
water. 10. Did you lend Henry this book? 11. I have written my 
mother a long letter. 

2. Read the last four sentences with the object next to the verb. 

3. Change the first six so as to have the object at the end. 



174 NOUNS. 

303. Verbs like those in the preceding exercise often 
have two objects, — 

(1) One showing ivhat is given, bought, etc., called the 
Direct Object, because it shows what the action directly 
affects; and — 

(2) The other showing to whom or for whom something 
is given, bought, etc. This is called the Indirect Object, 
because it is less closely connected with the verb. 

304. When the direct object conies first, the indirect object is ex- 
pressed in a jDrepositional phrase, introduced generally by to or for, 
sometimes by of or on, as in sentences 1-6, Exercise 281. 

EXERCISE 232. 

1. Read the following sentences, omitting the indirect object. 

2. Mention the direct and the indirect objects. 

1. He sent my sister some fine mosaics from Florence. 2. The king 
granted the offender a full pardon. 3. He showed his audience some 
rare views. 4. This land yields its owner large crops. 5. This mer- 
chant allows his customers large discounts. G. Throw the man a 
rope ! 7. The government granted the Pacific railroad large tracts of 
land. 8. He forgave the man that debt. 9. Can you teach an old 
dog new tricks? 10. The judge showed, the culprit no mercy. 
11. Do you tell me the truth? 12. Can you bring us proofs? 
13. We paid the men four dollars. 

3. Read the sentences, substituting a prepositional phrase for 
the indirect object. 

4. Analyze the preceding sentences, treating the indirect object as 
a modifier of the verb. Thus : — 

(The) king granted [the offender] (a) (full) pardon. 

305. The Indirect Object of a transitive verb shows to 
whom or for whom the action is performed. 



NOUNS USED ADVERBIALLY. 175 

306. When a transitive verb is changed into a passive verb-phrase 
[§ 501], the direct object should be made the subject. Thus : — 

They gave \_me~] a cordial invitation 
is better changed to — 

A cordial invitation was given [me], — i.e. [to me], 
than to — 

I was given [a cordial invitation]. 

EXERCISE 233. 

Use the following verbs in sentences containing direct and indi- 
rect objects : — 

pay; find; sell; give; toss; make; return; deliver; write; lend. 

8. Nouns Used Adverbially. 

307. A Noun may be used Adverbially. 

EXERCISE 234. 

1. What kind of phrases may be used like adverbs ? 

2. What words or phrases modify the following verbs as adverbs 
would? Tell whether they show how much, how often, when, and 
so on. 

6. He came very recently. 

7. They went away in the night. 

8. We met them last year. 

9. She arrived last Sunday. 



10. We buy a newspaper every 
day. 



1. Have you been standing long? 

2. We have been waiting for hours. 

3. You might have slept a few 
minutes. 

4. His burden weighs heavily. 

5. The load weighs several tons. 

11. Did you fall far? No; I fell a few feet, then slid several rods, 

and rolled the rest of the way. 

12. The steamer sailed due east three hundred miles the first day. 

308. We see from the preceding sentences that not 
only adverbial and prepositional phrases, but also nouns 



176 NOUNS. 

and noun-phrases may be used like adverbs. They may 
modify — 

r We shall remain a •week. 
Verbs: } He has travelled a thousand miles. 

( He was beaten several times. 

r This is a pound heavier. 
Adjectives: } It is icorth ninety cents. 

( My ladder is ten feet long. 

f You might write a great deal better. 
J We shall walk a mile further. 
I A minute later all was lost. 
[ Where shall we be a hundred years hence f 



Adverbs : 



309. Nouns used adverbially may denote time, place, 
or manner, — showing when, where, or how ; but they 
generally denote measure, showing hoiv much, how far, etc. 



EXERCISE 235. 

1. Select the nouns used adverbially ; tell what they modify, and 
whether they denote measure, time, place, or manner. 

1. The sun sets fifty minutes later. 2. The moon rises an hour 
earlier. 3. They perished ages ago. 4. What is that coming this 
way? 5. A few years ago men were a month travelling a thousand 
miles. 6. Cowards die many times before their deaths. 7. A piece 
two inches wide and four feet long weighs three pounds and is worth 
one dollar. 8. He has crossed the ocean twenty times a year. !». I 
walked the floor all night long. 10. Emperor William was ninety 
years old last Tuesday. 

2. Analyze the preceding sentences orally or in writing. 



9. Nouns Used Independently. 

31 0. A Noun may be used Independently in a 

sentence, — 



NOUNS USED INDEPENDENTLY. 177 

1. In calling to or addressing- some person or thing; as, — 

Bring us some lilies, Mary. 

Gentlemen, have you agreed upon a verdict? 

We say of such nouns that they are used "indepen- 
dently in address" They are therefore sometimes called 
vocatives. 

2. In calling 1 attention to something not addressed ; as, — 

The wind, the wind ! hear how it roars ! 

Alas ! poor creature ! how she must have suffered ! 

We say of such nouns that they are used "indepen- 
dently in exclamation." 

(a) A noun used in either of these ways stands by itself as a 
separate part of the sentence, not being connected with it as the other 
parts are. 

EXERCISE 236. 
Select the nouns that are used independently, and tell whether 
they are used in address or in exclamation. 

1. "Drink, pretty creature, drink." 2. Give me of your balm, O 
fir tree! 3. "What a fall was there, my countrymen." 4. "Soldiers, 
here you must either conquer or die." 5. " Our country ! it is not the 
East with its broad-armed ports." 6. "Roll on, thou deep and dark 
blue ocean, roll ! " 7. Mr. President, my object is peace. 8. The 
Pilgrim fathers! where are they? 9. The flag of the free! O long- 
may it wave! 10. "Permit me, sir, to add another circumstance." 
11. "Youth ! " he said, "I forgive thee." 

12. "My country ! 'tis of thee, 
Sweet land of liberty, 
Of thee I sing." 

10. Nouns Used with Participles. 

311. A Noun may be used with a participle that modi- 
fies it [§ 616] to make an adverbial phrase showing the 
time or cause of what is predicated. Thus : — 



178 nouns. 

Our commander being slain, we retreated. [Showing what causal 
the retreat.] 

My suspicions having hem aroused, I began to watch him. [Show- 
ing why or when I watched him.] 

312. A noun used in this way is sometimes said to be used 
"absolutely." The entire phrase, however, is used as a substitute Cor 

an adverbial clause [§ 542], and really modifies the verb of the accom- 
panying assertion. The examples given above mean — 

We retreated because our commander was slain. 

I began to watch him since my suspicions were aroused. 

EXERCISE 237. 

Tell how each verb is modified, and explain the use of the itali- 
cized nouns. 

1. His supplies having been exhausted, the general capitulated. 
2. We returned home, our ivork being finished. 3. The jury having 
been sworn, the trial proceeded. 4. The river being impassable, no 
attempt w T as made to cross it. 5. Ills trials (being) ended, he rests 
in peace. 

11. Nouns as Objective Complement. 

313. A Noun [or an adjective] may be used us the 
Objective Complement of a transitive verb. Tims : — 

Age makes a man feeble. I Tee keeps water cool. 

Elizabeth made Raleigh a knight, t 'a/I your dog Bruno. 

EXERCISE 238. 

1. (a) What is a complement? (A) What is the complement of 
a transitive verb called? (c) What is a subjective complement? 
(d) What is completed by a subjective complement? (e) To what 
does it always refer? 

2. (a) Read the examples in ij 813, omitting the last word. II<>\v 
does the omission affect the meaning? (//) What is the object of 
each verb? (c) To what are the adjectives added? 



OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT. 179 

314. In " Age makes a man feeble " the verb makes alone does 
not express the action performed on a man, for we need the adjective 
feeble to show what quality is produced in him. We mean not " Age 
makes a man," but " Age makes-feeble, or enfeebles, a man." 

So, too, the meaning of made in the second sentence is completed by 
the noun knight, which shows that knighthood was conferred upon 
Raleigh, — as if we had said " Elizabeth made-knight, or knighted, 
Raleigh." 

315. Words used to complete the meaning of a transi- 
tive verb, and at the same time to add some name or 
quality to the object of it, are called Objective Comple- 
ments, — " objective " because they refer to the object, 
and " complements " because they complete the predicate. 

EXERCISE 239. 

Select the objective complements, and tell how each is used. In 
making the analysis, underline the objective complement to show its 
connection with the verb, and inclose it in angles as a modifier of the 
object. Thus : — 

(The) snow paints' (the) fields (white). 

1. Fear made the soldiers pale. 2. We shall tint our walls green. 
3. The people made Lincoln president. 4. Time makes the worst 
enemies friends. 5. The warm weather has made the ice thin. 6. The 
Turks call their ruler Sultan. 7. The people called Paul, Jupiter. 
8. The president has appointed Mr. Clark postmaster. 9. Get the 
horses ready immediately. 10. The club has chosen Roy captain. 
11. We have appointed Henry Wise our agent. 12. Lincoln set the 
slaves free. 13. The merchant sold his stock short. 

31(>» A word used as the complement of a transitive verb and 
referring to the object of it is called an Objective Complement, 

EXERCISE 240. 

1. Use these verbs in sentences with objective complements : — 



180 NOUNS. 

Struck; make; named; appoint; elect; swept; called; dyed; 
chose ; colored. 

2. What is it to analyze a sentence? How do you analyze a 
phrase ? 

Parsing 1 . 

317. We analyze a sentence by separating it into its 
elements, — words, phrases, or clauses, — and showing how 
each one is connected with some other; if we then analyze 
each phrase and clause, we show how every word is used. 

But we need to be perfectly familiar with the forms and 
classes of words as well as with their use. To do this we 
must examine each word by itself, and follow some system 
in telling what is grammatically important about it. This 
is called parsing the word. 

318. To parse a word is to tell what is of grammatical im- 
portance about it. 

319. We should analyze a sentence before we parse 
the words in it, for the forms and classification of words 
depend upon their use, and this we discover through our 
analysis. 

320. We should parse the words of a sentence in the 
following order : — 

I. The Base (subject, verb, complement). 

II. The Modifiers of the Base. 

III. The Secondary Modifiers, etc. 

IV. The Connective Words. 

321. In parsing 1 a word we should tell — 

1 To the Teacher.— While children are learning to parse, they should give all the facts 
they can about a word, with the reasons. As they progress, they may substitute briefer 
forms, and give only the more important facts. 



PAESIXG. 181 

1. The part of speech to which it belongs. 

2. In what subdivision of that part of speech it is found; 
that is, what kind of noun, verb, adjective, etc., it is. 

3. Its grammatical form, — number, case, tense, etc. 

4. Its use or construction, or what it has to do with 
some other word. 

322. How to Parse a Noun. The following form 
" may be used in parsing nouns : — 

Alexander II. gave [the Russian serfs] (their) freedom [not 



many years { 

Alexander II. is a noun, because it is a name ; proper, because it is 
a special name meant for one person only ; singular, because it denotes 
but one ; used as the subject of the verb gave, for it represents the 
person about whom the assertion is made. 

freedom is a noun ; abstract, for it names [a quality or] a condition ; 
singular ; used as the object of the verb gave, for it shows what was 
given. 

serfs is a common noun, because it is a name for any or all of a 
certain kind ; plural, because it denotes more than one ; used as the 
indirect object of gave, for it shows to ivhom freedom was given. 

years is a common noun; plural; used adverbially to modify ago ; 
it shows how long ago the event happened. 

323. The following briefer form may be followed : — 
Alexander II. is a singular proper noun ; subject of the verb gave, 
freedom is a singular abstract noun ; object of the verb gave, 
serfs is a plural common noun ; indirect object of the verb gave, 
years is a plural common noun ; used adverbially to modify ago. 

EXERCISE 241. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns : — 

1. Accent and emphasis are the pith of reading; punctuation is 

but secondary. 2. The maize-field grew and ripened, and it stood in 

all the splendor of its garments green and yellow. 3. We may cover 

a multitude of sins with the white robe of charity. 4, I was born an 



182 Norxs. 

American; I live an American; 1 shall die an American. 5. How 
cunningly Nature hides every wrinkle of her inconceivable antiquity 
under roses and violets and morning dew. (5. Frequent the company 
of your Letters. 7. Congenial autumn comes, the Sabbath of the year. 
8. It is the tint of autumn, a mighty flower-garland, blossoming under 
the spell of the enchanter Frost. 9. Five times outlawed had he been 
by England's king and Scotland's queen. 10. One morn a peri at 
the gate of Eden stood disconsolate. 



NOUNS: SUMMARY. 

324. About Nouns we have learned to distinguish the 

following : — 

( n„,v„ ^, ( Collective 
tn„A~ S Common \ 

K,,,dS ----l Proper J^act 
v. Gender 

Forms . . . . \ Sin S ular 5 (Common) 
" ( Plural ( Possessive 

Uses, or Constructions. 

1. Subject of the verb . 

2. Subjective complement of the verb . 

3. Object of the verb . 

4. Object of the preposition -. 

5. An Appositive explaining the noun (or pronoun^ . 

G. Possessive form modifying the noun . 

7. Indirect object of the verb . 

^ verb -. j 

8. Used adverbially to modify the < adjective . > 

( adverb . ) 

9. Used independently in address (or exclamation). 

10. Used with the participle to make an adverbial modifier 

of the verb . 

11. Objective complement of the verb , referring to the 

object . 



CHAPTER XVI. 

PRONOUNS. 

325. We know that a noun, as " horse," is a word that 
represents only things of a certain kind, which it describes. 
A pronoun, as -"that," is a word that may represent any 
thing without describing it. 

Although the pronouns are few in number, they are 
divided into several classes, and the most of them have 
much to do besides merely taking the place of nouns. 
[See § 147.] ______ 

A. KINDS. 
1. Personal Pronouns. 

EXERCISE 242. 

1. Which of the following pronouns refer to the person speak- 
ing? 

2. Which refer to the person spoken to? 

3. Which to the person or -thing spoken of? 

1. Did you bring me a letter ? 

2. Your father sent it to my care. 

3. I asked him for his address. 

4. He wanted yours and mine. 

5. Does your sister know them ? 

6. We must inform our friends. 

7. They will forget us. 



8. She knows their plans. 

9. Tell her what ours are. 

10. Hers depend on theirs. 

11. Know ye its meaning? 

12. He telleth thee that thou mayst 
keep for thy share only what 
is thine own. 

4. If only one person is speaking, to whom must the pronouns we, 
our, ours, and us refer? 

5. Do any of the preceding pronouns show what kind of person is 
meant, — as a noun would ? 



184 PBONOTJNS. 

326. Pronouns that of themselves show whether we 
mean the person speaking, the person spoken to, or 
some person or thing spoken of, are called Personal 
pronouns. 

327. (1) Pronouns of the first person always repre- 
sent the speaker, either alone or with others. 

They are I and its variations, — my, me; ice, our. us, etc. 

(2) Pronouns of the second person always stand for 
the person or persons wpoken to. 

They are thou and its variations, — thy? thee; ye, you, your. etc. 

(3) Pronouns of the third person generally refer to 
what has been spoken of. 

They are he, she, it, and their variations, — his, him; her ; its : they, 
their, them. etc. Any pronoun not referring to the speaker or to the 
person addressed is of the third person in meaning. 

EXERCISE 243. 

1. Select the personal pronouns in Exercises 128 and 130, and 
tell whether they are of the first, the second, or the third person. 

2. Collect the pronouns from Exercise 242 into three lists accord- 
ing to their person. To which can "-self " or "-selves" be added ? 

328. Myself, thyself, yourself, himself herself itself and their 
plurals, are called Compound personal pronouns. 

329. A Personal pronoun is one that is always of the BUM 
grammatical person. 

2. Interrogative Pronouns. 
EXERCISE 244. 
1. Of what kind are the following sentence-? 2. For what does 
who stand? which? what? 3. To what part of speech do these 

words belong? 1. For what purpose are they used? 5. What kind 
of sentence is made by putting the answers in place of the pronouns? 



ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 185 

1. Who discovered the Mississippi? — De Soto. By whom was 
the St. Lawrence discovered? — Cartier. Whose discovery was made 
first? — C artier 's. 

2. Which is the longer of the two rivers ? — The Mississippi. 

3. What is the meaning of "Mississippi "? — " Father of Waters." 

330. An Interrogative pronoun is one used to ask a question. 

The three interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what. 
The last two are sometimes used as adjectives. [§ 393.] 

331. The word for which an interrogative prononn stands is 
unknown until it appears in the answer to the question. 

3. Conjunctive Pronouns. 

I. Clauses as Modifiers. — Adjective Clauses. 

• EXERCISE 245. 



1. very hot days 

2. days of intense heat 

3. days which were very hot 



1. ragged children 

2. children in rags 

3. children who wear rags 

1. trustworthy boys 

2. boys worthy of trust 

3. boys that may be trusted 

1. From the first two expressions in each group explain the differ- 
ence between adjectives and adjective phrases. 2. In the sentences 
numbered 3, read the descriptive expressions. 3. To what part of 
speech do wear, were, and may belong? 4. Mention the subjects, 
objects, or complements. 5. What does that stand for? 6. What 
does which refer to? 7. To what does who relate? . 8. To what 
part of speech do these words belong? 

332. From the examples in Exercise 245 we see that 
a noun may be modified not only by an adjective ivord 
or an adjective phrase, but also by a clause, or group 
of words that contains a subject and a predicate. 



186 PRONOUNS. 

Thus in the sentence, — 

Regions that have no vegetation are railed deserts, 

the expression that have no vegetation is used like an adjective 
to show which regions are meant, — as if we had said "regions 
without vegetation" or " barren regions." 

333. A Clause is a union of subject and predicate used like 
some part of speech. 

334. An Adjective clause is ;i clause used as an adjective. 

EXERCISE 246. 
1. Select the adjective clauses, and tell what each one modifies 
or describes 

1. I have read the book which you lent me. 2. The story that it 
tells is interesting. 3. The author, who is a woman, lives in Texas. 
4. Help those that are weal\ 5. Invite the gentleman of whom you 
spoke. 6. He gave all that he had. 7. Those that are rich should 
help those that are poor. 8. A man who cannot govern himself is a 
slave. 9. Our journey, which was very tiresome, ended at last. 10. The 
friends whom we visited have come. 11. Remember those whose 
hearts are sad. 12. Read such books as will be helpful. 

2. By what words are the clauses joined to the words to which 
they relate ? 

335. In the last exercise we see that each clause is 
connected to the word to which it relates by what we call 
a Conjunctive or a "relative" pronoun denoting the same 
person or thing. 

336. The word for which a pronoun stands is called 
the Antecedent, because it generally " goes before" the 
pronoun. 

337. When its antecedent is expressed, a conjunctive 

pronoun may be called a relative pronoun. 



KOTJN-CLATJSES. 187 

338. The four relative pronouns are who, which, that, 
and as. 

Who (whose, whom) represents persons only, which 
represents anything but persons, and that and as represent 
either. 

(a) As -which and that have no possessive form, whose is fre- 
quently used to represent something besides persons. It is generally 
better, however, to use of which instead. 

(b) When as is a relative pronoun, it follows many, such, or same ; 
as in, " I give thee such as T have " ; " As many as wish may go " ; 
"Mine is the same as yours (is)." 

EXERCISE 247. 

1. Select the relative pronouns in Exercise 246, and point out 
the antecedent of each. 

2. Which of the relative pronouns would you use to represent each 
of the following words : — 

Book ; city ; cousin ; horse ; flowers ; soldiers ; rivers ; kings ; tea ; 
winter ; Bismarck ; tribes ; armies ; conquerors. 

3. Write sentences containing the preceding words modified by 
adjective clauses. 

II. Clauses as Part of the Base: Noun-Clauses. 

EXERCISE 248. 

-j ( Poor people may need help. Q J I saw the things which he gave. 

\ The poor may need help. ( I saw what he gave. 

j Cloth is the stuff that he sells. A ( That ivhich you tell is true. 

i Cloth is what he sells. ( What you tell is true. 

1. Read the expressions that are alike in meaning, but different in 
form. 2. Compare the subjects in the first pair of sentences, and show 
how the second subject is made from the first. 3. Find the adjective 
clauses, and tell what each modifies. 4. Do the antecedents stuff, 
things, that, add much to the meaning? Give your reason, 5, Head 



188 FRONOtfNB. 

the sentences in which there are no antecedents. 6. Why is not an 
antecedent expressed ? 7. What pronoun is used in the clause when 
the antecedent is omitted? 8. What name would you give to a clause 
used like a noun? 

339. We know that an adjective may be used without its noun 
when the meaning is perfectly clear ; as in, " The ignorant should be 
taught." 

From the preceding exercise we learn that an adjective 
clause may also be used without the modified void, when 
the meaning of that word would he indefinite. Used alone 
in this way it becomes a Noun-clause. Thus in — 



I saw ] [ which he brought, 

( the thing ) 



{ the thin (j ) 

the word that or thing has of itself so little meaning that we may as 
w r ell omit it ; for it will convey the whole idea to say — 

I saw what he brought. 

So, too, the sentence " Employ whoever applies," is equivalent to 
" Employ anyone who applies." 

340. In noun-clauses we generally use what, whoever, 
whichever, etc., for the connecting or conjunctive pro- 
nouns. But we do not call them " relative," for they only 
imply another pronoun or a noun which is really the omit- 
ted antecedent. 1 

341. Noun-clauses may be subjects, objects, or subjective comple- 
ments, etc., like the antecedents which they replace. [§ 623.] 

EXERCISE 249. 

1. In these sentences explain the use of the italicized words and 
clauses : — 

1. I saw his gifts. I saw T what he gave. 2. Milk was her only 9Ut~ 
tenance. Milk was what sustained her. 3. I hear your remarks. I 

1 " What " formerly followed an antecedent; as in, " Ue gave me that what I have." 



CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 189 

hear what you say. 4. You tell the truth. You tell what is true. 
5. Your work is excellent. What you do is excellent. 6. Idlers 
will fail. Whoever is idle will fail. 7. He will sell all his ]ios- 
sessions. He will sell whatever he owns. 8. Take your choice. 
Take ivhichever you choose. 9. He will fulfil his promise. He will 
do whatever he promises. 10. Think about your lessons. Think . 
about what you study. 11. Whoever confesses will be forgiven. 
12. Whatsoever you ask shall be done. 13. Whosoever will may 
come. 14. Who steals my purse steals trash. 

2. Bead each sentence with the noun-clause changed to a noun 
or a pronoun modified by an adjective clause. 

342. A Noun-clause is a clause having 1 the nse of a noun. 

343. A Conjunctive pronoun is one that connects a clause 
to the rest of the sentence. 

344. («) The conjunctive pronouns what, whatever, whatsoever, 
who, whoever, whosoever, ivhichever, and whichsoever are used in noun- 
clauses. 

(b) The interrogative pronouns are also used in noun-clauses as 
connectives when a question is repeated indirectly as part of the 
reply to it. Thus : " Who wrote the book ? " — I do not know 
"who wrote the hook." ""Who did it" is a secret. Ask again 
"which he took." I will not tell "what it is." 



EXERCISE 250. 

1. Classify the clauses in these sentences, and tell how each is 
used : — 

1. He remembers ivhat he learns. 

2. Have you ascertained who wrote the letter f 

3. Man can do ivhat man has done. 

4. The fur which warms a monarch warmed a bear. 

5. Reputation is what we seem, but character is what we are. 

6. Beauty is the mark that God sets on virtue. 

7. We shall never know who wrote the book. 

8. Whoever trusts him makes a mistake. 



190 



PRONOUNS. 



9. Whatever he does shall prosper. 
10. The man who feels truly noble will become so. 
2. Point out the conjunctive pronouns, and tell which relate to 
an antecedent definitely expressed. Which two are interrogative? 



4. Adjective Pronouns. 



EXERCISE 251. 



1. All men are mortal. 

2. Both stories are false. 

3. Each hour is precious. 

4. Many books are worthless. 

5. Much time is wasted. 

6. One man's meat is another man's 

poison. 

7. That clock is too slow. 



1. All have faded. 

2. Both were wrecked. 

0. Each shall be rewarded. 

1. Many were orphans. 

5. Much remains to be used. 

0. One was taken, and another was 

left. 
7. That was more expensive. 



1. Compare the italicized words in the two columns ; tell which are 
adjectives, and give your reason. 2. Do they describe, or only limit V 
3. What does each one limit? 4. What noun may each of the itali- 
cized words in the second column have been used to represent? 

345. In the Last exercise we see words that are some- 
times used as adjectives to limit the application of a noun, 
and sometimes as Adjective pronouns to replace that noun. 
Thus, in the sentence, — 

One can do only one thing at a time, 

the second one is a limiting adjective (§ 392), modifying "thing"; 
bat the first one, having no noun expressed, is an adjective used as 
a pronoun. 

EXERCISE 252. 

Select the adjective pronouns, and tell the noun for which each 
is used. 

1. Few shall part where many meet. 2. All that breathe will share 
thy destiny. 3. Xone are so deaf as those who will not hear. 1. This 
was the bravest warrior that ever buckled sword. 5. She had no for- 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 191 

tune, and I had none ; but that of my father was ample. 6. Some are 
happy, whereas others are miserable. 7. One ought to rely on one's 
self. 8. Such as I have, give I unto thee. 9. Both went to the war, 
but neither returned. 10. Both of these are good, and I will take 
either. 11. An hour or so had passed. 

346. The principal words used as adjective pronouns 
are : — 

All, another, any, both, each, either, few, former, latter, many, more, 
most, much, neither, none, one, other, own, same, several, some, such, this, 
that, these, those. 

Some of these words often have enough of descriptive meaning to 
be called nouns. 

347. Each, either, and neither are called distributives, because 
they refer to a number of objects taken separately. 

This, that, these, and those are called demonstratives when they 
point out objects definitely. He, she, they, etc., have a similar use in 
such sentences as " He that would thrive must rise at five." 

348. An Adjective pronoun is a limiting adjective used with- 
out its noun. 

EXERCISE 253. 

Say to -what class each pronoun belongs, and give your reason. 
Thus : — 

"I" is a personal pronoun, for it always represents the speaker. "What" is a 
conjunctive pronoun, for it connects a clause to the rest of the sentence. 

1. It is I. 2. We are frail. 3. You and he are strong. 4. Few 
are stronger. 5. Who knocks ? 6. To whom shall they go ? 7. Is 
this the house which he built? 8. Which are they? 9. Did you call 
us? 10. That on the hill is his. 11. Which is yours? 12. Thou art 
she whom he calls. 13. Bring what he wants. 14. What is his 
name ? 15. I cannot tell what his name is. 16. I that speak unto 
you am he. 17. Many are called, but few are chosen. 18. I have 
none to go with me. 19. We respect those that respect themselves. 
20. We often deceive ourselves while trying to deceive others. 21. God 



192 PRONOUNS. 

helps those that help themselves. 22. How poor are they who have 
no patience. 23. Who is he that calls us traitors? 24. Such as I 
have give I unto thee. 



B. INFLECTION: CHANGES OF FORM. 

1. Number. 

349. Fourteen pronouns have, like nouns, two number- 
forms. They are : — 

(1) The five personal ( SlxG - T > tJl0U > he, site, it. 

pronouns : | Plural, we ; ye, you} "~they7~' 

(2) The five compound personal pronouns : 

Sing. myself; thyself, yourself; himself herself itself 
Plural, ourselves; yourselves; themselves. 

(3) Four adjective pro- ^ Sing, this; that; one; other. 

nouns: (Plural, these; those; ones; others. 

350. All other pronouns have but one form, which is 
used either with a singular or with a plural meaning. 

(a) Another, each, either, neither are always singular in meaning; 
and both, few, many, several are always plural in meaning. 

EXERCISE 254. 

1. Tell whether these pronouns have a singular or a plural 

meaning : — 

This ; we ; you ; few ; she ; them ; who ; myself ; both ; us ; they ; 
each; these; such; which; he; that; many; ourselves; either; who- 
ever ; themselves ; several ; all ; those ; who ; it ; any ; some ; another ; 
neither. 

2. Give the other number-form of such of the preceding pronouns 
as have two forms. 



CASE-FORMS. 193 



2o Case. 

EXERCISE 255. 

1. I left my trunk behind me. 

2. Thou art the Creator, and thy works praise thee. 

3. He sent his army on before him. 

4. They obey their parents, and honor them. 

1. Whom do the pronouns in the first sentence represent ? 2. Give 
the use of each one. 3. How does the form change with the use? 
4. In No. 2 mention the pronoun used as subject ; as possessive ; as 
object. 5. Do they represent the same person? 6. Why do they 
differ in form? 7. In Nos. 3 and 4 how are the forms of the pro- 
nouns changed? 8. How do you account for these changes? 

351. We see from the preceding exercise that besides 
a possessive form some pronouns have still another special 
form, which is required whenever they are used as objects. 

Thus, besides who, Ave have the possessive form whose, 
and the object, or objective form whom, which is used 
when the pronoun is the object of a verb or of a preposi- 
tion ; as in, — 

"Whom did you mention ? For whom is it ? 

352. Eight pronouns, — 

I, thou, he, she, it, who, whoever, whosoever, 

have three case-forms or cases : — 

(1) The possessive, to show ownership ; 

(2) The objective, required when the pronoun is used as an ob- 
ject; and — 

(3) The subjective or nominative form for all other uses. 

" Nominative " means merely naming. 

353. Cases are the different forms of nonns and pronouns 
required by the construction. 



194 



PRONOUNS. 



354. To give all the singular and plural case-forms of 
a pronoun is to decline it. Tims : — 

Nominative. Possessive. Objective. 
Singular. I my, mine me 

Plural. -we our, ours us 



First Person . 



Second Person 



( Singula 

I Plural. 



Third Person. . ■{ 



(thou) 
(ye) you 

f Sing. Mate, he 
she 
it 
they 



Sing. Fern. 
Sing. Nt lit. 
Plural. 



(thy, thine) 
your, yours 

his 

her, hers 

its 

their, theirs 



(thee) 
you 

him 
her 
it 
them 



Nominative. 

/ who 
Singular or Plural \ whoever 



I 



■whosoever 



Possessive. 
whose 
whosever 
whosesoever 



Objective. 
whom 
whomever 
whomsoever 



(a) Thou, thee, etc., are now used chiefly in solemn 
address, or in poetry. The plural 3-011 commonly takes 
the place of thou and may denote one person only. 

(b) The possessive forms of these pronouns are. adjectives by use, 
and may be called possessive adjectives. [See §231.] 



EXERCISE 256. 

1. Name the case of these pronouns. Which are plural forms? 
Her ; him ; thine ; them ; who ; ours ; its ; I ; their ; ye ; whose ; 

thee ; whom ; us ; hers ; thy ; our ; you ; me ; my ; it. 

2. Learn the ten nominative forms ; the nine objective forms. 
Which two forms are either nominative or objective? Which one is 
either possessive or objective? 

355. Three pronouns — one, other, another — like nouns, 
have a special form only for the possessive use. Tims: — 
Singular: one, one's; other, other's; another, another's. 



Plural : 



ones ; 
ones, ones'; 



other, other's ; 
others, others'. 



USES, OR CONSTRUCTIONS. 195 

356. Most pronouns, however, are not used as pos- 
sessives, and have but a single form for all their con- 
structions. 

Either 's and neither's are sometimes used; but the phrases of either, of neither, 
would be better. 

3. Gender. 

357. He, slie, and it are gender-pronouns. He rep- 
resents a male, and is of the masculine gender; she 
represents a female, and is of the feminine gender; it 
generally represents that which has no sex, and hence 
is said to be of the neuter gender. 

(a) He is often used to represent an antecedent that applies to 
both males and females. As in, — 

Has any person lost his gloves ? 

(b) In sentences like " The child cries for its mother," " Shoot the 
crow if you see it," we use it, because the sex is either unknown or 
unimportant. 

358. Personification. We sometimes speak of things as if 
they were persons, and use masculine or feminine pronouns in refer- 
ring to them. Such objects are said to be personified. Thus : " The 
sun his ceaseless course doth run." "Nature in her robes of green." 



C. USES, OR CONSTRUCTIONS. 

359. Pronouns have all the constructions, or uses in 
sentences, that nouns have. Three or four of these 
uses, however, are rare ; and relative and interrogative 
pronouns are mostly used in one of the first four ways. 
[See page 182.] 

360. An interrogative pronoun generally precedes the verb, and 
there is sometimes a doubt whether it is used as subject or as sub- 
jective complement. We can always decide, however, by noticing the 



196 PRONOUNS. 

construction of the word that takes its place in the expected reply. 
For example : — 

Who is it? It is your mother. 



Which is mine ? The small one is yours. 
What was he? He was a clergyman. 



Here "who and what must be subjective complements, for so are 
mother and clergyman, the words they represent. For a simi- 
lar reason, which is a subject. 

EXERCISE 257. 
Tell the use of each pronoun in these sentences : — 
1. He liveth long who liveth well. 2. Who is it? — It is I. 3. We 
have found them. What is it that you have found ? 4. In what did 
you travel? We sent to him by her for this. 5. Whose carelessness 
caused this ? Our defeat was their victory. One's manners show 
one's breeding. 6. He himself hath said it. They each and all 
declined to go. 7. He gave one of them permission, and she told 
us the secret. 8. Each stepping where his comrade stood the instant 
that he fell. [§308.] What is it worth? 9. "O Thou who nearest 
prayer ! " " O happy we ! thus blessed." 10. This being the case, 
we shall not go. 11. The will makes the house yours. You may as 
well call it such. [§316.] 

361. Most personal pronouns have two possessive 
forms, — one used like an adjective to modify a follow- 
ing noun, as in "my hand," "your heart," — and the 
other used to take the place of a noun, as in " mine 
is here," " this is yours." 

(a) His is used in either way; as "his land," "his was a useful 
life." 

(b) Mine and thine are sometimes used like my and thy before a 
word beginning with a vowel sound ; as " mine own," " thine honor." 

362. The second of the possessive forms may be used in any 
construction, and with singular or plural meaning. Thus ; — 



ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 197 

That tongue of hers will make trouble. 

Thine is the glory. Bring theirs, but leave ours. 

" Wealth is not his that has it, but his that enjoys it." 

(a) These words are much like adjective pronouns, and may he called such. 
(6) Do not use the apostrophe in writing ours, yours, theirs. 

363. It is frequently used as the temporary or anticipative sub- 
ject of a verb, the real subject of which is a word or an expression 
that comes after it [§ 598]. As in, — 

It is always best (to try). It is true (that health makes icealtli). 

364. It is sometimes used indefinitely without an antecedent. 
As in, — 

It rains. It will freeze to-night. 

Analysis of Complex Sentences. 

365. A Complex sentence is one that contains a clause. 

Sentences containing conjunctive pronouns are there- 
fore always complex. 

366. If a compound sentence contains a clause, it be- 
comes of course a compound complex sentence. 

367. In analyzing complex sentences the directions 
given on pages 151-153 may generally be followed. 

In written analysis adjective clauses may be enclosed like other 
modifiers, and the use of noun-clauses may be showm by underlining 
them entire. The base of a clause may be marked by lines drawn 
over subject, verb, and complement. 

Examples. — 1. (The past is (a) (shadowy) page (which keeps 



[forever] (the) record (of our lives)). 

1. This is a complex assertive sentence. 

2. Formed of the principal assertion and an adjective clause. 

3. The base of the assertion is past is page. 

4. The subject past is modified by the adjective the. 



198 PRONOUNS. 

5. The subjective complement //"^ is modified by the adjectives 
a. and shadowy, and by the adjective clause which keeps forever the 
record of our lives. 

6. The base of the adjective is which keeps n cord, and so on. 

+ 

2. Nothing is troublesome (that we do [willingly]). 

Note. — Conjunctive pronouns used as complements always precede their verbs, as 
in the senteuce above. 

+ _ ___ 

3. Whoever does (a) (good) deed is [instantly] ennobled. 

1. This is a complex assertive sentence. 

2. Formed of a principal assertion with a noun-clause for its 

subject. 

3. The base of the assertion is — and so on as before. 

+ . . 



4. (The) lecturer told [us] what tie had seen [during his journey]. 

EXERCISE 258. 

Analyze the following sentences : — 

1. Who owned the farm that was sold? 2. Tell me what you have 
learned. 3. The gentleman who called is a physician. 4. lie is a man 
that I esteem highly. 5. Show me those that you have finished. 
6. We shall send him whatever he demands. 7. Do you know for 
whom the gift is meant? 8. Have you heard what caused the fire? 
9. I know what you want. 10. Ask her who he is. 11. We prize that 
which we obtain by effort. 12. This is the hook from which he read 
the story. 13. My lord, I know not what the matter is. 14. People 
almost never do anything in anger of which they do not repent. 

15. He who was taught only by himself had a fool for a master. 

16. Nature is loved by what is best in us. 17. There is no secret of 
the heart which our actions do not disclose. 18. Reputation is what 
we seem, but character is what we are. 10. Beauty is the mark that 
God sets on virtue. 20. What man has done man can do. 21. Is this 
the sole reward for which you have done so base a deed? 



PARSING. 



199 



368. How to Parse a Pronoun. A pronoun is parsed 
by giving its 1. hind; 2. antecedent ; (3. person;} (4. num- 
ber;} (5. case;} 6. use; and (7. declension}. 

The following forms may be used : — 

1. (My) mind (to me) (a) kingdom is. 

My is a personal pronoun ; represents the speaker ; first person ; 
singular number ; possessive case; used to modify the noun mind. 

Or more briefly, — 

My is the first cingular possessive personal pronoun, and is used to 
modify mind. 

2. Those (that waste (their) youth) lose what they can [never] 



regain . 



Those is an adjective pronoun ; represents " those persons " ; plural 
number ; used as subject of the verb lose. 

That is a relative pronoun; antecedent those; used as the subject 
of the verb waste. 

What is a conjunctive pronoun ; antecedent omitted ; used as the 
object of the verb can regain. 

EXERCISE 259. 
1. Parse the pronouns in Exercises 253 and 258. 



369. 


SUMMARY: PRONOUNS. 




' First 




Second 




" Personal 


Third 




Conjunctive 


Singular 
Plural 


Kinds < 


Relative 




Interrogative Forms ■ 


Masculine 




Adjective 


Feminine 




Nominative 


Constn 


Lictions. [See page 182.] 


Possessive 



Person 



- Number 



- Gender 



Case 



Objective 



200 PRONOUNS. 

D. ERRORS IN THE USE OF PRONOUNS. 
1. Wbong Numb^r-fobms. 

EXERCISE 260. 

1. A tree is known by fruit. 

2. Deciduous trees shed leaves annually. 

3. Neither of the ships lowered colors. 

4. Let each person do best. 

5. Even a child is known by doings. 

G. Both the regiments laid down arms. 

7. Each pupil must provide own books. 

8. No faithful girl will forget duties. 

1. What is meant by the antecedent of a pronoun? 2. In the 
first two sentences, would you fill the blanks with " their " or 
" its " ? 3. Give your reason, and explain the number of both 
pronoun and antecedent. 4. In the third sentence, does the sub- 
ject "neither" mean one or more than one? 5. Will "their" cor- 
rectly represent it ? Give your reason. C. In the next two sentences, 
why may we not use "their" to represent person and child? 7. Fill 
the blanks in the remaining sentences with " their," " her," " its," or 
"his," as you may think best. 8. When is the singular form of a 
pronoun to be used ? 9. The plural ? 10. The feminine ? 

370. We must be careful always to use a singular 
pronoun to represent a singular antecedent, and a plural 
pronoun to represent a plural antecedent. 

It is incorrect to say, — 

Every man of you must polish their own armor, 

for the plural pronoun " their " does not correctly represent the sin- 
gular antecedent " man." We should say, — 

Every man of you must polish his own armor. 

37.1. Agreement. A pronoun must agree with its antece- 
dent in number ) gender, and person. 



WKOXG NUMBER-FORMS. 201 



EXERCISE 261. 

Fill the blanks with suitable pronouns, giving the reason for your 
choice. Thus : — 

" Neither bad discovered his mistake." The singular antecedent " neither " must be 
represented by the singular pronoun his. A pronoun must agree in number with its 
antecedent. 

1. Neither had discovered mistake. 2. Each contributed what 

could. 8. Every one stoutly maintained innocence. 4. The 

beaver shows great skill in constructing dwellings. 5. Eveiy- 

body must look out for . 6. A person should control wrath. 

7. "When one is ill, will call a physician. 8. If you find Little 

Women, send to me. 9. This is such bad news that I can- 
not believe . 10. England expects every man to do duty. 

11. Each workman must provide own tools. 

12. Sharpen my shears so that will cut. 13. Which of the 

two finished work first? 14. Let each esteem others better than 

. 15. A person may make happy without wealth. 16. Let 

each of the girls take place. 17. A person's manners frequently 

show morals. 18. After you have read My Girls, return to 

me. 19. If thine enemy hunger, feed . 20. If anybody knows, 

must not tell. 21. Many a man will sacrifice reputation 

for a trifle. 22. If anybody calls, tell to wait. 

372. Antecedents joined by AND. Singular antece- 
dents connected by " and " must be represented by a plural 
pronoun ivhen they denote different things, but by a singu- 
lar pronoun (1) ivhen they denote the same thing, or (2) 
when they are Kept separate by the use of " each" " every," 
" many a" or " no." Thus : — 

Martha and Mary (two persons) wept for their brother. 

The secretary and treasurer (one person) has resigned his office. 

Each leaf and each flower can speak its Maker's praise. 

Every maple and every elm will have shed its leaves. 

Many a flower and many a gem may have its beauty hidden. 

No friend and no acquaintance gave me his aid. 



202 PRONOUNS. 



EXERCISE 262. 



Supply a suitable pronoun in each of these sentences, giving the 
reason for your choice : — 

1. Joseph and Benjamin rejoiced to see father. 2. Cultivate 

good temper and kind feeling: presence will make all about you 

happy. 3. Envy and hatred make possessor unhappy. 1. Pov- 
erty and wealth have each own temptations. 5. Each oihcer and 

each soldier will be permitted to retain arms. 0. My classmate 

and companion had completed studies. 7. Every steamer and 

every train had complement of passengers. 8. Every lady and 

every gentleman must register names. [See § 374.] 9. The 

husband and father cannot support family. 10. Every city and 

village and farm furnished quota of soldiers. 

373, Antecedents joined by OR or NOR. Use a sin- 
gular pronoun to represent singular antecedents connected by 
or or nor. Thus : — 

Either the president or cashier must add his signature. 

Neither Harrison, Taylor, nor Garfield completed his term of office. 

374. In referring to singular nouns of different gender we must 
use pronouns of different gender, or else change the form of the sen- 
tence. Thus, we may say. — 

Every boy or girl may keep his or her books, or 
All the boys and girls may keep their books. 

It is wrong, of course, to say, "Every boy or girl may keep their 
books." If there were a singular pronoun that could refer to either 
males or females, we might not be tempted so often to use " they " 
incorrectly. 

EXERCISE 263. 

Head these sentences, supplying a suitable pronoun, and giving 
a reason for your choice, according to § 373. Thus : — 

"Neither Henry nor Thomas had paid his fare." 

The singular pronoun his must be used to represent the singular nouns "Henry" and 
" Thomas," which are connected by " nor," and hence are to be taken separately. 



WKONG CASE-FORMS. 203 

1. Neither the lawyer nor the physician will give services. 

2. If thy hand or thy foot offend thee, cut off. 3. Where can 

I buy a good house or farm, if I want ? 4. Neither Alfred nor 

Ellen recited lesson perfectly. 5. No man nor woman ever hurt 

health in this way. 

375. Collective Antecedents, Represent a collective 
noun by a singular pronoun ivhen you refer to the collection 
as a whole, and by a plural pronoun when you refer to the 
individuals of the collection separately. Thus : — 

The committee has transacted its business. 
The jury have returned to their homes. 

EXERCISE 264. 

Fill each blank with a suitable pronoun, giving the reason for 
your choice. 

1. The audience kept seats till the close. 

2. The jury had not brought in verdict. 

3. The House will elect speaker next Monday. 

4. The Board of Aldermen will be divided in opinion. 

5. Our club will hold meeting to-morrow. 

6. The Post will install officers next week. 

2. Wrong Case-forms. 

376. When we use the pronouns that have three case- 
forms, we must be careful to use only the nominative 

forms as subjects and subjective complements, and only the 
objective forms as objects of verbs or prepositions. 

377. The nominative forms for subjects and subject- 
ive complements are, — 

I, -we, thou, he, she, they, who, whoever, -whosoever. 

The objective forms for objects of any kind are, — 
me, us, thee, him, her, them, whom, whomever, whomsoever. 



204 PBONOUNS. 

378. Utile for Subjects, etc, — Never use an objective 

case-form as a subject or as a subjective complement. 

EXERCISE 265. 

Select the proper form of the pronoun, giving the reason for 
your choice. Thus : — 

" It wasn't (rue, I) that did it." The nominative I, and not the objective me, should 
be used as the subjective complement of was according to the rule, " Never use an ob- 
jective case-form as a subject or a subjective complement." We should say, " It wasn't 
/that did it." 

1. You and (me, I) will go together. 2. "Why shouldn't (us, we) 
girls form a club? 3. Thy father says (thou, thee) must obey. 4. I 
should go if I were (he, him). 5. You said it was (her, she) that 
called. 6. (Them, they) that have want more. 7. I do not know 
(who, whom) it will be. 8. Reward (whomever, whoever) is deserv- 
ing. 9. (Whom, who) do you think it is? 10. It is not (us, we) who 
are to blame. 11. Was it (she, her) that came last? 12. Few can 
entertain an audience better than (hiin, he). 13. I do not think it 
could have been (they, them). 14. She knows better than you or 
(me, I). 15. (They, them) that do well should be rewarded. 10. How 
much older are you than (her, she)? 17. Where are you and (lie, 
him) to stay? 18. Who will ask for it, you or (I, me) ? 

379. Utile for Objects, — Never use the nominative of a 
pronoun with three case-forms as the object of a verb or a 
preposition. 

EXERCISE 266. 

Choose the proper form of the pronoun and justify your 
selection. Thus : — 

. " He has invited you and (I, me)." The use of the nominative / instead of the ob- 
jective me as the object of the verb has invited would be a violation of the rule, " Never 
use the nominative of a pronoun with three case-forms as the object of a verb or a prep- 
osition"; hence we should say, "He has invited you and ?He." 

1. Let this be a secret between yon and (I, me). 2. (Who, whom) 
did they choose? 3. I want you and (he, him) to go. 4. Nothing is 



WRONG CASE-FORMS. 



205 



too good for you nor (she, her) either. 5. (Who, whom) did you see? 
6. Tell me (whom, who) you mean. 7. There was no one to go except 
(she, her) and her mother. 8. I wanted you and (him, he) to come 
again. 9. (Whom, who) is this package for? 10. (Them, they) that 
honor me I will honor. 11. Send (whoever, whomever) you choose. 
12. I will give it to (whosoever, whomsoever) you select. 13. (Who, 
whom) did he appoint as executor ? 11. This is for you and (I, me) . 
15. Let's you and (I, me) bring the sleigh. 

380. An cippositive pronoun requires the objective case-form only 
when in apposition with an object. Thus : — 

Honor thy mother, her who loves thee well. 
We will write to each other, you and I. 

381. A pronoun used independently or with a participle 

should generally have the nominative case-form. Thus : — 

" O Thou who hearest prayer ! " " He failing, who shall succeed?" 

382. The complement of " to be " used as an indirect predicate 

must have the objective case-form. [§ 602.] Thus: — 

I knew it to be him. He thought them to be us. Whom did 

he suppose me to be ? 



EXERCISE 267. 

Read each of these sentences several times, using different pro- 
nouns to fill the blanks, when possible. Thus : — 

It is I.- It is you. It is we. It is he. It is she. It is they. 

1. It is . It wasn't . 

2. Is it ? No, it is . 

3. It is not nor . 

4. and — — will go. 

5. Neither nor went. 

6. Those are for and . 

7. He mistook for , 

8. Do you know it is ? 



9. It can't be . It must be 

10. Was it ? No, it was 

11. They saw and . 

12. Between and . 

13. Do you know he sent? 

14. He knows it is for. 

15. knew it was . 

16. knew it to be . 



206 " PRONOUNS. 



EXERCISE 268. 



Read the sentences, using that form of the pronoun which you 
think is correct. Give the reason for your choice. 

I . Was it you or (I, me) that made the mistake ? 2. It was intended 
for either you or (him, lie). 3. (Who, whom) did he send with you? 
4. Was it (him, lie) (that, who, whom) you met ;it my uncle's? 5. In- 
careful (who, whom) you admit to your friendship. 0. No matter 
(who, whom) the poor fellow is, help him. 7. All (which, that) I have 
told you is between you and (T, me). 8. (Who, whom) shall we Bend 
in his place? 9. The committee did not agree in (its, their) opinion. 
10. We saw the procession with (their, its) banner. 

II. There are few better men than (he. him). 12. Each of them 
must answer for (themselves, himself). 13. (Whom, who) besides him 
do you think was rewarded ? 14. Nobody should praise (themselves, 
himself). 15. Can you forgive (we, us) girls for our folly V 16. Every 
man and boy took off (their, his) hat. 17. Please explain the phe- 
nomena: I do not understand (it, them). 18. That distinguished 
orator and statesman will give (their, his) lecture to-night. 19. Neither 
the king nor the queen wore (his, her, their, the) royal robes. 

3. Choice of Pronouns. 

383. Of the relative pronouns, who stands for persons 
only, which for other things, and that for either. 

384. That, rather than who or which, should be used, — 

(1) After a superlative adjective. Thus : — 

The wisest man that ever lived. 

(2) After same, all, and the interrogative who. Thus : — 
The same friend that I visited. All that was left. Who that 

heard the orator can forget him? 

(3) After antecedents denoting both persons and things. 
Thus : — 

He spoke of the men and the cities that he had seen. 
Why not " whom he had seen " or " which, he had seen "? 



CHOICE OF PRONOUNS. 207 

385. It is often better to use that, rather than "who" or "which," 
in restrictive clauses ; that is, in clauses that limit the application of 
the antecedent by showing ivMck ones or how many, etc., are meant. 
Other adjective clauses state an additional fact about the antecedent, 
and may be called explanatory or appositive clauses. For example : — 
Restrictive. Franklin was the commissioner that negotiated the treaty. 
Appositive. Congress appointed a commissioner, who negotiated the 

treaty. 

386. Punctuation, Rule. — Explanatory adjective 
clauses must be set off by commas. 

387c Use each other in speaking of two objects ; one another, of 

more than two . As in, — 

David and Jonathan loved (each) other. 

How do the months compare [with (one) another] ? 

Each and one are generally in apposition with the subject of the 
verb ; other and another with the object. 

EXERCISE 269. 
1. Fill the blanks with who, which, or that, and give the reason for 
your choice. 

1. He was deceived by the friend in he trusted. 2. A new 

party arose, opposed the National Bank. 3. These are the same 

persons assisted us before. 4. Who are those were intro- 
duced to us ? 5. All I said did not influence him. G. They have 

not forgotten the friends and the home they have left. 7. Is 

that the regiment of you are a member? 8. He was the first 

reached the New World. 9. The surgeon, was a very skil- 
ful man, saved my friend's life. 10. The family I visited cannot 

be the one to you refer. 11. We saw the prisoners and the flags 

were captured. 

2. Point out the errors in the following sentences: — 

1. The tribes of Southern Africa resemble each other. 2. Either 
of the five will help you. 3. The two nations are suspicious of one 
another. 4. We saw a ship that its masts were cut away. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

ADJECTIVES. 
[Review pages 102-108.] 



1. Any bright, intelligent child 

2. Some poor anthracite coal. 

3. Which planet is brightest? 

4. Chasms, dark and dreadful. 

5. Six tall Russian soldiers. 

6. That road looks cheerless. 



EXERCISE 270. 

7. Several large Asiatic lions. 

8. What plants are poisonous? 

9. Those three decaying trees. 

10. Every tenth man was lame. 

11. All the written evidence. 

12. This water tastes salt. 



1. What is an adjective? 2. Which of the preceding adjectives 
describe what is mentioned? 3. Which show how many are meant? 
4. Mention those that merely show which ones are referred to without 
describing them. 5. What is a predicate adjective? 6. Mention those 
used above. 7. Name the adjectives used to ask questions. 8. The 
two derived from proper nouns. 9. Those that are made from verbs. 
10. Those that show quantity. 11. Which besides the predicate ad- 
jectives follow the nouns that they modify ? 



A. KINDS. 

388. Most adjectives are words that may be added to 
a noun to describe the object named by showing that 

it is of a certain kind or quality, or that it is in a certain 

state or condition. As, — 

white snow; skilful surgeons; wounded men ; daily walks. 

Such adjectives often limit the application of a noun to those of 
a certain kind, as- in the last three examples. 



DESCEIPTIVE AND LOOTING ADJECTIVES. 209 

389. All other adjectives do nothing else but deter- 
mine or limit the application of a noun by showing which 
ones, how many, or what quantity. As, — 

this brook ; the fourth day ; six perch ; few trout ; much rain. 

390. A Descriptive adjective is one that describes what is 
mentioned, 

391. Descriptive adjectives derived from proper nouns are called 
proper adjectives. Those that are forms of verbs are called parti- 
cipial adjectives. Thus : — 

Brazilian diamonds; fatiguing journeys; decayed wood. 

EXERCISE 271. 

From the following nouns form proper adjectives to fill the 
blanks in the sentences : — 

Genoa, France, America, Spain, Persia, Venice, Italy, China, Japan, 
Turkey, Greece, Mexico, Africa, Shakespeare, Malta, Brazil. 

1. navigators sailed under the flag. 2. The flag and 

the flag have three colors each. 3. carpets and rugs 

are imported. 4. — — lanterns and fans are sold here, 5. The 

windows have blinds. 6. He is an excellent reader. 

7. Which are more valuable, or diamonds ? 8. He played 

several — — airs. 9. Draw a cross and a cross. 10. We 

met two -, a , and several . 11. Cochineal is a 

product. 

392. A Limiting adjective is one that merely shows which 
ones, how many, and so on, without describing, 

393. Limiting adjectives include the following : — 

I. The two Articles, — the ; an or a. 

(a) The is the definite article, used with either singular or plural nouns to point out 
some particular thing or things. 

(5) An or a is the indefinite article, used with singular nouns to show that we mean 
either one only or any one. 

II. Numeral adjectives, — showing how many or which one of a 
series, how large apart, etc. As, — 



210 ADJECTIVES. 

March contains thirty-one days, or four weeks and three days 
Pronounce the third word on the ninety-first page. A tenth part 
is smaller than a sixth part. 

III. The Interrogative adjectives, — which and what. As, — 
"Which road leads to Rome ? What cities were destroyed ? 

IV. The Conjunctive adjectives, — which and what, with their 
compounds, used to introduce a noun-clause, or to connect it to the 
rest of the sentence. As, — 

Do you know what presidents died in office? 

Seud me whatever facts you may obtain. 

We have not heard which army was victorious. 

Some conjunctive adjectives are relatives, and some are interrogativea, 

V. Possessive adjectives, — nouns and pronouns like Mary's, my, 
his, etc., which are adjectives by use. [See § 231.] 

VI. Demonstrative adjectives, — this, that, these, those, and yonder, which point 
out objects definitely. 

VII. Distributive adjectives, — each, every, either, neither, and many a, which 
refer to objects singly. 

EXERCISE 272. 

1. Classify the adjectives in Exercise 208. 

2. Construct ten sentences, each containing a limiting and a 
descriptive adjective. 



B. INFLECTION: CHANGES OF FORM. 
Comparison. 

EXERCISE 273. 

1. Lake Erie is a large lake. 

2. Lake Michigan is larger than Lake Erie. 

3. Lake Superior is the largest lake in the world. 

1. Mention the descriptive adjectives in these sentences. 2. What 
two lakes are compared? 3. With reference to what quality are they 
compared? 4. Which of the two has that quality in the greater 
degree? 5. What change iu the form of the adjective is made to 



COMPARISON". 211 

show this? 6. With what is Lake Superior compared? 7. What lake 
is of greater size than Lake Superior? 8. What lake has the quality 
of size in the highest degree? 9. In these comparisons what changes 
do you notice in the form of the adjective ? 

394. Many adjectives are changed in form to show that 
one object has more of the quality than others with which 
it is compared. 

Thus, without making a comparison, we say, — 
This is a high mountain ; 
but, to show that another mountain with which we compare it has the 
quality of height in a greater degree, we add er to the adjective, and 
say, — 

Mt. Lafayette is a higher mountain. 

And if we wish to show that one mountain among all those we are 
considering has the quality of height in the' greatest degree, we add 
est to the adjective, and say, — 

Mt. Washington is the highest mountain in the state. 

395. To add er and est to an adjective that it may 
denote different degrees of a quality is to compare it. 

396. Comparison is a change in the form of an adjective to 
denote different degrees of the quality. 

397. The positive degree of an adjective is its simple, 
unchanged form. As, tall, heavy, sad. 

The comparative degree is the form that ends in er. 
As, taller, heavier, sadder. 

The superlative degree is the form that ends in est. 
As, tallest, heaviest, saddest. 

EXERCISE 274. 
1. Tell which degree of these adjectives is given : — 
Happier; nobler; musty; clearer; slower; nearest; hot; proper; 
bright ; slender ; small ; politer ; fairest ; luckiest ; surest. 



212 



ADJECTIVES. 



2. Compare the following adjectives [see § 466] : — 

Thin; feeble; strong; merry; lofty; brave; short; jolly; pretty; 



keen 



red ; coy ; gloomy 
profound. 

3. Which change y to i ? 
double the last consonant ? 



merry ; 
shy ; rough ; great ; mighty ; lovely ; idle ; 



Which really add only r and st ? Which 



398. Irregular comparison. The following adjectives 
are compared in an irregular way, — sometimes by quite 
different words : ■ — 



EOSITIVE. 


Compara- 
tive. 


Superla- 
tive. 


Positive. 


Compara- 
tive. 


S.PERLA- 
TIVE. 


Good) 
Well > 


better 


best 


Late 


< later 
( latter 


( latest 
(last 


Bad) 
111 ) 


worse 


worst 


Near 


nearer 


( nearest 
i next 


Little 


less 


least 


Old 
[In] 


( older 


| oldest 


Many > 
Much > 
[Forth] 


more 
further 


most 
furthest 


( elder 
inner 


I eldest 
( inmost 
( innermost 


Far 

Fore 


farther 
former 


farthest 
.first 

( foremost 


[Out] 
[Up] 


outer 
upper 


( outmost 
( outermost 
uppermost 



Note. The words in brackets are adverbs. Several other superlatives are made by 
adding -raost instead of -est. As, — 

northern, northernmost; southern, southernmost. 

399. We have learned (§ 223) that by using adverbs as modifiers 
adjective phrases may be formed denoting various degrees of quality. 
Thus : — 

cold, slightly cold, rather cold, very cold, uncommonly cold, 
extremely cold. 

400. In this way, by using the adverbs less and least, 

we may represent degrees of quality below the positive ; 
and, by using more and most, we may form adjective 
phrases, which are equivalent to the inflected forms in er 
and est. Thus : — 



ADJECTIVES NOT COMPARED. 213 

r more polite ( most polite 
least polite ; less polite ; polite ; ■) or •< or 

( politer ; ( politest. 

401. Adjectives that are not Compared. Since to 
most adjectives we cannot add er and est without making 
awkward or ill-sounding words, we must use these equiva- 
lent adjective phrases in comparing objects. 

Thus we say " a more remarkable adventure," "the most porous sub- 
stance," and not " remarkabler " or "porousest." 

402. The adjectives to which er and est may be added are words 
of one syllable and a few words of two syllables, chiefly those ending 
in y or le. As, — 

Happy, hearty, ready ; noble, able; polite, mellow, etc. 

403. A few adjectives denote qualities that cannot exist in dif- 
ferent degrees, and hence they can neither be compared nor modified 
by more and most. As, — 

Dead, chief, square, equal, principal, spherical, etc. 

Note. Such forms as rounder, straighter, truest, are sometimes used as if they 
meant more nearly round or straight, or nearest true. 



EXERCISE 275. 

1. Change the comparatives and superlatives to equivalent 
adjective phrases, and change the phrases to equivalent adjectives. 

Handsomer ; more shallow ; most sincere ; fittest ; more handy ; 
sauciest ; most ample ; narrowest ; slenderest ; more nimble ; braver ; 
gentlest. 

2. Change them all to phrases denoting lower and lowest 
degrees. 

3. Tell which of the following adjectives are not compared, and 
give your reason : — 

Luscious; empty; hollow; supreme; wrong; tenth; deaf; particu- 
lar; false; vain; fashionable; naked; honest; lucrative; void; these; 
blind; equal; fatal; dry; wet; best; mean; dutiful; level. 



214 ADJECTIVES. 

404. Number. Only two adjectives, this and that, 

change their form when used with nouns plural in 
meaning. Thus : — 

this kind; these varieties ; that reason ; those reasons. 

(«) A or an, another, each, either, neither, many a, much, and our arc 
used only with singular nouns; and both, many, several, sundry, divers, and 
most numeral adjectives, only with plural nouns. 



C. USES, OR CONSTRUCTIONS. 

405. An adjective may stand in several different relations to the 
word that it modifies. 

406. I. (a) An adjective may be closely connected with 
its noun as an attribute, or part of the name. Tims : — 

Those | brave soldiers prepared for the | coming battle. 
(5) Or it may be used separately, as an appositive. 

Thus : — 

The enemy, equally brave, began the conflict. 

Cool and resolute, they awaited the onset. 

Punctuation. — When thus used, adjective phrases should he set off by commas. 

407. II. It may be joined to a copulative verb as a 
predicate adjective, showing what is asserted of thai 
which the subject names. Thus : — 

The contest was long and bloody, and the result seemed doubtful, 
(a) When an adjective [or a noun] is the complement of one of the 
infinitives or participles of a copulative verb, (1) It may refer to some 
word in the sentence. As in, — 

Each army strove to be victorious. He tried to become king. 
Having been successful, we pursued the enemy. 

or (2) It maybe used abstractly, without reference to any noun; as in, — 

To be intemperate is to be miserable. Being good is one way of doing good. 
To become a scholar is a laudable desire. 

408. III. An adjective may be joined to a transitive 
verb or verbal word as an objective complement to com- 



PARSING. 215 

plete its meaning and at the same time acid a quality to 
the object of it. [See § 318.] As in, — 

His troubles made him insane. We tried to make him com- 
fortable. 

409. How to Parse an Adjective. To parse an adjec- 
tive we have to tell only its (1) kind, (2) form, — if com- 
parative or superlative, — (3) use. 

These forms may be followed : — 

1. "(Full many a) gem (of purest ray serene) 

(The) (dark), (unfathomed) caves (of ocean) bear." 

2. Do you know (what) (American) historian was blind? 

3. (Which) king (of England) had (six) wives? 

many-a is a limiting adjective ; used to modify gem. 

purest is a superlative, descriptive adjective ; used to modify ray. 

American is & proper, descriptive adjective ; used to modify historian. 

what is a conjunctive adjective ; used to modify historian. 

blind is a descriptive adjective; used as subjective complement of was, 

and referring to historian, 
which is an interrogative adjective ; used to modify king, 
six is a numeral adjective ; used to modify wives. 

EXERCISE 276. 

Analyze these sentences, and parse the adjectives. 

1. Gentle rains revive the thirsty fields. 2. Firm-paced and slow, 
a horrid front they bore. 3. Calm and serene as the iron walls 
around him, stood Regulus the Roman. 4. Many amusements ap- 
pear harmless which are really dangerous. 5. The painting looks 
attractive, but the artist does not seem satisfied. 6. A few critics 
have pronounced it perfect. 7. The government considered him com- 
petent to command. 8. Make the house where gods may dwell 
beautiful, entire, and clean. 9. Many try in vain to be happy. 

10. The people found their new ruler to be cruel and blood-thirsty. 

11. Appearing honest and being honest are very different things. 



216 ADJECTIVES. 

12. You must tell me about what things you see. 13. Medicine only- 
made the patient worse. 14. To be prodigal in youth is to be needy 
in age. 15. Which cour.se would you advise him to take? 1G. "What- 
ever efforts you make will be rewarded. 17. Fortune may make a 
man famous, but it cannot make him great. 18. It finds him poor; 
it makes him rich. 



SUMMAIIY: ADJECTIVES. 



410. To sum up: An adjective is a word that adds t<> 
the meaning of a noun or a pronoun, without asserting 
anything nor standing by itself as a name. 



ticipial s Positive 

r Numeral Forms < Comparative 

Lim ting } Interrogative * Superlative 



411 ' f Descriptive 1 Pro l )er 

( Partici 

Kinds < 

Limiting 

(Conjunctive 

Uses, or Constructions. 

1. Modifies the noun (or pronoun) . 

2. Subjective Complement of the verb (inf. or part.) - 

(a) Referring to . (b) Used abstractly. 

■). Objective Complement of the verb (inf. or part.) — 



1). ERRORS IN THE USE OF ADJECTIVES. 

412. A or An. A should be us<><! only before words 
beginning with consonant sounds, and an before ivords 
beginning with vowel sounds. Thus : — 

A house, an honor; a wonder, a one, an onion, an ounce; a yew, 
a ewe, a use, a unit, a eulogy, an urchin, an uncle. 

Note. One Logins with the consonant sound of w, and long u begins with the con- 
sonant sound of y. 



ERRORS IN THE USE OF ADJECTIVES. 217 

413. Article repeated. When two or more connected 
adjectives describe different objects, the article is used with 
each; but when they describe the same object, the article 
is used with the first only. Thus : — 

A pink and a white dahlia (two flowers). 
A pink and white dahlia (one flower) . 

414. Agreement, An adjective that denotes one, or more 
than one, must agree in number with the noun that it limits. 
Thus we should say, — 

" This kind," not " these kind " ; " three feet wide," not " three foot 
wide " ; " that sort," not " those sort " ; " six pounds of tea," not " six 
pound" 

415. Such expressions as a few, a dozen, a great many, a hundred, ten thou- 
sand, three hundred sixty-five, two and a half, may be considered adjective phrases 
when they modify nouns. 

416. Them. Never use them as an adjective. 
Expressions like "them books," "them things," are among the 

worst errors. 

EXERCISE 277. 
1. Fill the blanks with a, an, or the when needed. 

1. Brutus was honorable man. 2. This is universal 

truth. 3. He was kind and indulgent parent. 4. Omit 

first and second stanzas. 5. poor and rich have equal 

rights. 6. She was married to dignified and kindly man. 

2. Select the proper form, giving your reason. 

1. I prefer (these, this) kind of rugs. 2. Did they use (that, 
those) hose at the fire? 3. You must avoid (those, that) sort of 
people. 4. I haven't seen him for (these, this) two weeks. 5. We 
must catch (them, those) horses. 

417. Adjectives not compared. Do not compare adjec- 
tives so as to make ill-sounding or meaningless forms. 

Say the most awkward fellow, not the awkwardest ; and more nearly 
square, rather than squarer. 



218 ADJECTIVES. 

418. Double Comparison. Do not modify compara- 
tive* by more nor superlatives by most. 

For "They could not find a more worthier man/' say, "a worthier 
man" or "a more worthy man." In "This is the most unwisest 
course," omit either most or st. 

419. Forms Confused. Use the comparative form in 
comparing two objects, the superlative in comparing more 
than two. Thus: — 

Which is better, — health or wealth? 
Which is best, — health, wealth, or learning? 

420. Other misused. Do not spoil a comparison by 
wrongly inserting or omitting the word other. Thus: — 

"New York is larger than any city in America," should of course 
be "than any other city in America"; and "Rhode Island is the 
smallest of all the other States," should be " of all the States." 

421. Adverbs for Adjectives. Do not use an adjective 
where an adverb is needed. 

Not •• move slow" but " move slowly " ; not " real good," but 
"really or very good." 

EXERCISE 278. 
Correct the following sentences, giving your reason : — 

1. Go very quick. 2. I never heard a more truer remark. 3. Which 
is largest, — the numerator or the denominator? 4. Which is the best 
actor, — Booth or Irving ? 5. Speak loud and distinct. 6. This is the 
most quietest part of the city. 7. Let such an one rise, if pr 
8. I never saw anything neater done. 9. Which is nearest the north 
pole, — Europe or Asia? 10. This copy is very perfect. 11. Were you 
weighed on that scales? 12. He is the awkwardest skater on the pond. 
13. Of all my other friends, I like him best. 1-1. Brother Charles is 
taller than any member of our family. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

VERBS. 

[Review pages 126-137.] 

422. The life of a sentence is the verb that it con- 
tains ; if we take that away, no matter how many words 
remain, the meaning is generally gone. 



A. KINDS. 



423. We have already found that the verb alone is 

sometimes quite enough to make a finished predicate ; as 

in — 

The earth revolves. The sun rises. 

But sometimes it seems only to have begun what another 
word must finish ; as in — 

The sun gives — light. The earth is — a sphere. 
Hence we class verbs as Complete and Incomplete. 

424. Incomplete verbs, or those that need complements, 
are again divided into classes as follows : — 

Copulative verbs that need a complement to describe 
what the subject names ; as, — 

Fire is hot. "We were without food. Heat is a force. 

Transitive verbs that need an object to show what the 
action affects ; as, — 

The sun gives light. Burn the trees. 



220 VERBS. 

425. Of these three kinds of verbs, complete, copulative, and transi- 
tive, the two that are not complete may, of course, be called incom- 
plete, and the two that are not transitive may be called intransitive. 

EXERCISE 279. 

1. Supply subjects to these verbs, and complements where they 
seem to be needed : — 

Screamed ; stays ; fly ; ate ; cut ; punished ; grew ; drink ; seek ; 
depart ; talked ; tears ; looks ; seemed ; saw ; were ; became ; found ; 
arm ; wore ; feels ; had ; spoke ; are ; was. 

2. Explain the difference between the two kinds of comple- 
ments that you have added. 

426. Copulative Verbs. No verb is always copula- 
tive, and only a small number are ever so ; one of them 
however is extremely common, namely, be, which — with 
its various forms, am, is, was, were, etc. — helps to make 
many verb-phrases ; as in — 

" We are waiting," for "We wait." 

(a) Be is sometimes used like "exist" as a complete verb with 
more of its original meaning; as in — 

The time was, when no one lived here ; There is a God ; 
but generally it seems only to connect the subject to what is asserted 
of it. 

(b) Be enters into the meaning of all other copulative verbs. 
Thus: — 

He appeared wise = was wise in appearance. 

The clouds look distant = are distant to the sight. 
The water tastes bitter =is bitter to the taste. 

So with feel, sound, smell, become, seem, etc. 

EXERCISE 280. 

Point out the verbs the meaning of which is completed by some 
expression that is descriptive of what the subject names. 



INFLECTION. 221 

1. The case seems more hopeful. 2. Man became a living soul. 
3. The man has turned fool. 4. He looks well and feels much 
stronger. 5. Why stand ye here idle? 6. All bloodless lay the un- 
trodden snow. 7. He had been called wise. 8. The English forces 
proved irresistible. 9. The shutters blew open. 10. The buds smell 
sweet, but they taste bitter. 11. Some men are born great. 

427. Transitive Verbs. Verbs that are usually transi- 
tive may also be used intransitively ; i.e., they may signify 
merely that something is clone, nothing being said about 
what is affected b}^ the action. So we say, — 

" He stayed his wrath " or " He seldom stayed." 
" He speaks English " or " He speaks slowly." 

428. Even verbs that are usually intransitive may 
sometimes take an object. Thus : — 

Sit thee down. She worked herself to death. They live a dreary 
life, and are running a hopeless race. "Walk your horses up hill. 

429. Objective Complement. Many transitive verbs take a 
complement descriptive of what the object names. [See § 313.] 

EXERCISE 281. 

Make short sentences showing how each verb may be used either 
transitively or intransitively : — 

Answer ; boils ; dissolve ; returned ; smells ; survive ; break ; fell ; 
slipped ; believes ; becomes ; shakes ; rained ; pulls ; struck ; drives ; 
gnaw; sing; worries; felt; sounds; followed; rattled; tasted; fear; 

stay. 



B. INFLECTION: CHANGES IN FORM. 

430. As with nouns and pronouns, so with verbs, each 
has several forms made by inflection to correspond to 
changes in the use or in the meaning. 



222 



VERBS. 



1. Tense-forms. 



EXERCISE 282. 



1. Tell whether the time referred to is present or past, 
doubt, add " now " or " yesterday." 



If in 



He thinks. 


She rides. 


Tt stood. 


They fall. 


I thought. 


They caught. 


"We found. 


Waves dash. 


He catches. 


I walked. 


I lose. 


Water freezes. 


We study. 


You wrote. 


It grows. 


Ice br< 



2. Change each verb so that it will refer to some other time. 

431. Nearly every verb has one change of form that 

affects the meaning as much as if it were modified by an 
adverb. Thus, speaking of the present time, we say, — 

I come; I wait; I stay; 

but if it was at some time in the past that the coming, 
waiting, or staying took place, we say, — 

I came ; I -waited ; I stayed. 

432. Forms that are changed to express a difference in 
time are called Tenses, which means times. 



EXERCISE 283. 
Tell -whether the form of the verb denotes present or past time : — 



1 have. 


Thou mayest. 


He was. 


Thou canst. 


He shall. 


He does. 


You may. 


I will. 


You can. 


Thou art. 


I did 


He might. 


They had. 


They could. 


He hath. 


We were. 


I am. 


She has. 


It is. 


You should 



433. The Present tense of a verb is the form that generally 
refers to present time. As ? — 

I stand ; I work ; I live. 



TENSE-FORMS. 223 

434. The present tense is sometimes used of what is past or future 
to make it seem present or distinct ; as, — 

In the fifteenth century a new era begins. 
We leave the city to-morrow. 

435. In form the present tense is like the simple infini- 
tive, or root, from which all other forms are derived. 

436. The Past tense of a verb is the form that generally refers 
to past time. As ? — 

I stood ; I worked ; I lived. 

437. The past tense is sometimes used of what is really present or 
future to make it seem doubtful ; as, — 

If I "were well to-day — If I should go to-morrow — 

438. The common or regular way of changing the 
present to the past form is by adding d or ed at the 
end. Thus : — 

I lived ; I borrowed ; I waited. 

But in a number of the oldest verbs the change appears 
in the middle of the word, whether anything is added or 
not. Thus : — 

stand, stood ; fall, fell ; see, saw. 

EXERCISE 284. 

Write the present tense of — 

Patted ; played ; began ; could ; caught ; worked ; stood ; walked ; 
chose ; came ; waited ; bit ; tried ; crept ; struck ; blew ; broke ; flew ; 
gazed ; brought ; burnt ; whipped ; did ; bled ; dug. 

Write the past tense of as many of these as you can : — 

Work ; write ; make ; wear ; think ; till ; love ; take ; strike ; see ; 

pour ; steal ; speak ; sit ; sell ; run ; ride ; guess ; smoke ; give ; part : 

drive ; dream ; ask ; try. 



224 VERBS. 

439. About twenty verbs cannot be changed in this way, and the 
time is therefore shown by something besides the form ; as, — 

Now we spread our tents. We spread them yesterday. 
In such cases we may call the form present or past according to its 
use. 

440. Tenses are the forms of a verb that distinguish time. 

2. Mood. 

441. If we study verbs in sentences, we find them used 
to predicate in several ways or modes. Thus, they may 
be used — 

1. To command, as in "Be ready"; "Wish with me." 

2. (a) To assert positively, as in "I am ready"; "She wishes 

it." 
(I) To question, as in "Am T ready?" "Who wishes this?" 

3. To say something doubtfully, as if only thought of ; as in — 
" If it be there, I will bring it " ; " If 1 were ready, I would go." 

442. It was once the custom to use in such cases quite 
different forms of the verb called — not tenses to show 
times — but Moods to show the manner or mood in which 
a person spoke. Even nowadays the forms are not always 
the same, and hence we say that — 

443. I. A verb used to express a command or a request 
is in the Imperative mood. As, — 

Go quickly. Come with me. Be honest. 

444. II. A verb used either (1) to state something as 
a fact, or (2) to ask a simple question, is in the Indicative 
mood. As, — 

He goes quickly. Does she wish it ? 
If she was there, I failed to see her. 

Most sentences are, as we know, of this kind. 



225 



445. III. A verb used to express in a doubtful way 

either (1) ivliat is uncertain and to be decided in the future, 
or (2) a supposition that is contrary to fact, or (3) a wish, 
is in the Subjunctive mood. As, — 

(1) Though lie be dead, we shall find him. Even if he fail, he 
will not despair. (2) If she were willing, I would help her. (3) I 
wish I were well. Thy kingdom come. 

Sentences of this kind are comparatively rare. 

446. We know that the order of words may distinguish 
an assertion from a question ; as in — 

" Does he ride ? " " He does ride " ; 
and also that the dropping of the subject may distinguish 
an assertion from a command ; as in — 

" You ride every day " ; " Ride every day." 
Now commonly there is nothing about the form of a 
verb to show in what manner it is used; but still there 
are a few special forms in the indicative mood, so that 
even now the form does sometimes vary with different 
modes of speaking. Thus : — 

Indicative Forms. 

1. Thy foe appears ; advance. 

2. Thine enemy thirsts ; give him 

drink. 

3. He telleth all our plans. 

4. He said he was to stay. 

5. I know what the result is. 

Indicative Form. 
L Thou keepest my feet from 
falling. 



SUBJUNCTIVE FORMS. 

1. If thy foe appear, advance. 

2. If thine enemy thirst, give him 
drink. 

3. See that he tell no man. 

4. He said that if he were to 
stay 

5. Whatever be the result 

Imperative Form. 
1. Keep thou my feet from fall- 
ing. 



447. When used with the same subject, such forms as 
appears, thirsts, telleth, was, is, am, art, are, belong only 



226 verbs. 

to the Indicative mood ; such forms as appear, thirst, tell, 
were, be, belong only to the Subjunctive mood. Forms 
•like keep instead of keepest belong to the Imperative 
mood. [For Potential phrases, see § 483.] 

448. Mood is the power of a verb to denote the manner of 
speaking. 

EXERCISE 285. 

Select from the following sentences five verbs that express a com- 
mand ; three that assert a condition assumed to be a fact; five that 
state facts positively : — 

1. Clouds bring rain. 2. Dare to do right. 3. I wish my father 
were here. 4. The eclipse was total. 5. A robin built its nest in our 
elm. 6. If I am not paid, I work hard. 7. Speak kindly to the erring. 
8. He would be a spendthrift if he were rich. 0. Tf he was severe, he 
was not unjust. 10. The crew furled the sails. 11. Be just, and fear 
not. 12. Improve your opportunity before it be lost. 13. I should 
go even if the danger were greater. 11. If the truth be known, no 
harm can result. 15. Though she was there, I did not see her. 

3. Number and Person. 

449. The differences in the special indicative forms of 
a verb depend on what its subject; is. Thus, in the present 
tense we say, — ■ 

I, we, you, they, or the men stay ; but 
He, she, it, or the man stays, — 

using a special form made by adding s or es whenever the 
subject is a third-singular pronoun or a singular noun. 

450. As this special form is never used except with a 
subject denoting the third person and the migular number, 
it is called the third-singular form. It is also called the 
s-form, because it always ends in s. 



VERBAL NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. Z"Zl 

EXERCISE 286. 

Use every one of these words in succession to fill each blank, and 
spell the third-singular form of the verb : — 

I, you, he, we, you, she, they, we, it, the men, the man. 



- go, 

— wish, 


— find, 

— ply, 


— perch, 

— crouch, 


— deny, 

— watch, 


— smash 

— cry, 


— have, 


— do, 


— row, 


— lie, 


— lay. 



451. Changes to suit the person and number of the subject were 
once much more common than now, and two old-style forms such as 
we see in the Bible, are still used, especially in prayer and in poetry. 
Thus : — 

(a) With thou as subject the verb takes the ending st or est in 
both the present and past indicative tenses. For example : — 

Thou waitest. Thou waitedst. Thou goest. Thoustoodst; 

and (&) instead of the customary third-singular form in s, a form 
ending in th or eth may be used in the present tense. Thus : — 
She giveth. He goeth. The wind bloweth. 
Exceptions. The verb be keeps many of its old changes of form, as shown in § 467. 
Dare (meaning venture), and need, sometimes take no added s with a third-singu- 
lar subject. Thus : — 

He dare not go. He dares you to do it. 

He need not stay. He needs a coat. 

452. The meaning of the verb is hardly affected by such changes, for they only 
show to which one or to how many the statement applies; but as they are made accord- 
ing to the meaning of the subject, that is sometimes said " to govern" the verb, and the 
verb is said " to agree with its subject." 

4. Verbal Nouns and Verbal Adjectives. 

453. By inflecting a verb in these different ways, we change the 
form, the application, and sometimes the use of it; but so long as it 
can predicate in any way, it still remains a verb. 

We now come to certain other verbal forms that do 
not predicate anything, and therefore are not verbs like 
the rest. 



228 



EXERCISE 287. 
1. Which of these verbal words and expressions cannot by them- 



grow 


took 


running 


goes 


come 


worked 



give 
grown 
to wait 



selves form the predicate of a sentence ? 

broken flying 

flew fallen 

playing to take 

2. Which may be nouns, and which adjectives? 

454. From almost every verb are formed two special 
kinds of verbal words having the use of other parts of 

speech. 

Thus, besides the true verbs drives, drove, we have two nouns, 
driving and (to) drive, that name the action expressed by the 
verb ; as in — 

Driving is pleasant; I like to drive. 
and two adjectives, driving and driven, that describe either the 
actor or the receiver of the action ; as in — 

A man driving; Snow driven by the wind. 

455. Such nouns and adjectives as these differ from all 
others that are derived from verbs, since they may be 
formed from almost any verb; and, what is still more 
important to notice, they may have the same modifiers 
that verbs have. Thus : — 

(1) The nouns, if derived from transitive verbs, may take an 
object. As in — 

Driving fast horse* is pleasant ; 
and they always may be modified by an adverb. As in — 

I like to drive slowly. 
Here driving and to drive are used as subject and object, respec- 
tively; but, like verbs, they express action as passing over to some- 
thing else, or as going on in different ways. 

(2) So with adjectives, we may say, — 

" a man beating a doy" or " a dog cruelly beaten." 



INFINITIVES. 229 

Here beating and beaten describe the man and the dog like adjec- 
tives, and are modified like verbs. There is no assertion in either 
expression, yet we think of the man as acting and of the dog as acted 
upon, as much as if a verb were used. 

EXERCISE 288. 
Find all the verbal nouns and verbal adjectives. 



6. Ducks shot by a hunter. 

7. To work is to win. 

8. Telling lies hardens the heart. 

9. The house standing back from 

the road. 



1. Horses drawing stone. 

2. Stone drawn by horses. 

3. To draw well requires skill. 

4. A good teacher of drawing. 

5. Ducks swimming in the lake, 

10. Fields ploughed in the early fall. 

11. An empty boat carried over the falls. 

12. A long-boat carrying several shipwrecked passengers. 

13. The habit of smoking tobacco or of playing with fire. 

14. To waste in youth is to want in age. 

456. The two nouns regularly formed from verbs are 
called Infinitives. 

457. 1. The first infinitive is the root or simplest 
form of the verb, either with or without the sign to 
before it; as, — 

(to) drive, (to) spin, (to) sleep, (to) walk. 

This is called the root-infinitive, or simply the infinitive. 

2. The second infinitive is formed with the ending ing ; 

as, — 

driving, spinning, sleeping, walking. 

This is called the infinitive in ing, 1 It is often treated 
in all respects like a noun (§ 207), having similar uses and 
modifiers. Thus : — 

(Rapid) driving (in crowded streets) is dangerous. 

1 Or sometimes the "gerund." To the Teacher. See Our Language, p. 195. 



230 VERBS. 

EXERCISE 289. 
1. Select the infinitives, and, if possible, tell how they are used. 

1. These are wagons for carrying corn. 2. Writing letters is 
making signs. 3. Have you ever tried writing with your left hand? 
4. We ran to the rescue. 5. We ran to rescue them. 6. To write 
letters easily is an accomplishment. 7. He came to stay here for his 
health. 8. lie has tried to walk without his crutches. J). His physi- 
cian forbade him to run after eating. 10. I desire to go. I wish to 
go. I will go. 

2. When possible, substitute the other infinitive for the one 
given in these sentences. 

3. Form the infinitive of any ten verbs. 

458. An Infinitive is a verbal noun that names the action 
or condition expressed by the verb, and takes the same comple- 
ments and modifiers. 

Note. The word "infinitive" means infinite, unlimited. It is applied to these 
forms because the idea of the verb is never limited as to person and number. 

459. The two adjectives regularly formed from verbs 
are called Participles. 

460. One participle describes a person or thing as con- 
tinuing an action. It is called the active or imperfect 
participle, and always ends in ingr; as, — 

driving, spinning, sleeping, walking. 

461. The other participle is called the passive or per- 
fect participle, because what it describes is regarded 
either («) as having received the action expressed by the 
verb ; as in — 

Threads are spun, Cattle are driven ; 

or else (5) as having completed some action; as in — 
One who has walked or slept. 
This participle usually ends in t, d, or n. 

Note. The names present and past are also used. 



CONJUGATION 



EXERCISE 290. 



231 



Select the participles. Tell from what verb each is derived, what 
each describes, and what its modifiers are. 

A fisherman leaving the shore pulled out to the sunken reef in a 
boat kept for his use. Hearing a ship pounding on the rocks, he 
rowed till he could see the crew bound or clinging half-frozen to the 
shattered masts. They were partly hidden by the fog, and partly by 
patches of torn sails. 

462. A Participle is a verbal adjective. It shares or par- 
ticipates in the nature of a verb and of an adjective. 

463. These verbal nouns and adjectives are given along with 
other verb-forms, because — 

(1) They are made from almost every verb ; 

(2) Most verb-phrases are formed by help of them ; and — 

(3) They take the same kind of complements and modifiers that 
verbs take. 

CONJUGATION. 

464. When we put together all the different forms of 
a verb, we have what is called the 'Conjugation of it. 

465. We shall find that there are commonly but seven 
or eight changes made in the verb by inflection. In 
the verbs wait and give, for instance, we use the sim- 
ple forms — 

(1) "Wait and give, as infinitive, as imperative, as present tense 
of the indicative and subjunctive ; 

We substitute — 

(2) Waits and gives in the present indicative with third-singular 
subjects ; 

(3) "Waited and gave as past tense ; 

(4) Waiting and giving as the second infinitive and as the imper- 
fect or active participle ; 



232 VERBS. 

(5) Waited (like the past tense) and given as the perfect or pas- 
sive participle. 

Besides these we have the solemn or poetical forms, — 

(6) Waitest and givest, in the present indicative, with the sub- 
ject thou; 

(7) Waitedst and gavest, in the past indicative, with the subject 
thou ; and — 

(8) Waiteth and giveth, in the present indicative, with a third- 
singular subject. 

466. Rules for Spelling. I. The third-singular form of the 
present indicative is made by adding s to the root-form, or es, when needed 
for the sound. If the verb ends in y after a consonant, y is changed to i, 
and es is added. [See §§ 278, 279.] As,— 

Make, makes ; go, goes ; wish, wishes ; defy, defies. 

Exception. Have becomes has (not haves). 

II. Silent e is dropped before the suffixes ed, ing, etc. As,— 

Hope, hoped, hoping, hopest, hopeth. 

Exceptions. Hoe, shoe, toe, dye, singe, and tinge retain the e before Ing. Die 
becomes dying ; have becomes had (not haved). 

III. Monosyllables, and dissyllables accented on the second syllablp, if 
they end in a single consonant after a single vowel, double the final conso- 
nant before er, ed, ing, etc. As, — 

Sad, sadder, saddest; hop, hopped, hopping; refer, referred. 

IV. To verbs ending in ic, k is added before all endings but s. As, — 

Traffic, trafficked, trafficking. 

EXERCISE 291. 
Write in columns the five common forms of these verbs. Thus : — 
Root. S-form. Past Tense. Imperf. Part. Per/. Part. 

try, tries, tried, trying, tried, 

rob, robs, robbed, robbing, robbed. 

[See page 202 for forms that you do not know.] 

Omit ; do ; carpet ; dry ; defer ; wrap ; befit ; submit ; behave ; 
echo; differ; bar; benefit; live; merit; ship; glorify; have; equip; 
regret ; save ; slap ; concur ; gaze ; search ; quit ; compel ; gossip ; 
sing; singe. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE. 



233 



Conjugation of the Irregular Verb be. 

467. The verb be not only keeps many of the old forms, 
but is really made up of three different verbs, — the infini- 
tives and participles be, being-, been, from one root; the 
present tense am, are, etc., from another; and the past 
was, were, from a third. Thus : — 



Indicative . 



Present { 



f am, with / as subject. 
art, with thou as subject. 



Past . 



Present . 



Subjunctive -j ' 



Infinitives , 



(to) be. 
being. 



j is, with any third-singular subject. 
[_ are, with you, or any plural subject. 

f -was, with any singular subject ; — not 
with " thou " nor " you." 
■wast or wert, with thou as subject. 
were, with you, or any plural subject. 

.be. Imperative be. 

. were. 

Imperfect Participle being. 

Perfect Participle been. 



EXERCISE 292. 



1. Fill the blanks with the proper 
I _ we ll. We — well. 



Thou — well. You — well. 

He — well. They — well. 

2. Fill the blanks with the proper past indicative forms of be 



indicative forms of be. 
She — well. 
One — well. 
Some — well. 



I — absent. 
You — absent. 
He — absent. 
She — absent. 



We — absent. 
They — absent. 
Roy — present. 
■ present. 



The king — present. 
The princes — present. 
Many — present. 
Thou — present. 



468, Most verbs have seven inflected forms, only four 
of which are in common use. These verbs are conjugated 
like wait, as follows : — 



234 



VEBBS. 



Con juration of WAIT. 



Indicative 



Present 



waits (or waiteth), with a third-singular 

subject only, 
(waitest, with thou as subject.) 



Past . 

Pn 



( (waitedst, with thou as subject). 

_ , . . ( Present, .wait. Imperative wait. 

Subjunctive •< _> 

J \ Past . . .\ 



. wait. 
. -waited. 



T „ .. ( (to) -wait. Imperfect Participle waiting. 

In hnitives • , . . _ . - _. . . , 

( waiting. Perfect Participle -waited. 

469. Some verbs have eight or nine inflected forms, 
three of which are seldom used. These verbs are conju- 
gated like give. 



Conjugation of GIVE. 

f give. 

, gives (or giveth), with a third-singular 
Present J 



Indicative 



Subjunctive 



Past. . j 

f Present . . give, 
gave. 



I Past 



subject only, 
(givest, with thou as subject.) 

gave. 

(gavest, with thou as subject.) 



Infinitives . i ^ sive " 
( giving. 



Imperative give. 

Active Participle giving. 
Passive Participle given. 



470. Regular and Irregular Verbs. We see that the 
two verbs wait and give are changed in different ways. 
The past tense and the perfect participle of wait arc 
formed alike, that is by adding ed. Thus : — 
wait, waited, waited. 



REGULAR AND IRREGULAR. 285 

But in give these two parts are unlike, being formed 
without the use of ed. Thus : — 
give, gave, given. 

Elsewhere the changes are the same, and in order to 
conjugate any verb we commonly need to know only how 
these two forms are made. 

471. Most verbs 1 form the past tense and the perfect 
participle by adding cl or ed to the root, and are called 
Regular Verbs. All other verbs are called Irregular. 2 
For example : — 

Root- Past Peef. Root- Past Perf. 

Inf. Tense. Part. Inf. Tense. Part. 

.„ , ( wait, waited, waited. T 7 ( give, gave, given. 

**"*"■ iliw, lived, lived. Irre ^ lar itll, fell, Lien. 

472. These three forms, the root-infinitive, the past 
tense, and the perfect participle, are called the Princi- 
pal Parts of the verb, because when they are known, the 
whole conjugation of the verb can be given. 

473. Double Forms. Some verbs have both regular and 
irregular forms for the past tense, or for the perfect parti- 
ciple, or for both. Sometimes these forms differ in meaning, 
and frequently in use, but generally either may be used. 

1 All but about two hundred of the thousands of verbs in the language. 

2 To the Teacher. — Though for convenience we may distinguish verbs as "regular" 
and "irregular," it is proper and useful to bear in mind the genuine classification of 
them into — (I.) Verbs of the Neiv Conjugation (comprising all that are " regular " and 
some that are " irregular ") in which the past tense and the perfect participle ordinarily 
add ed, d, or t, but have in some cases been changed for ease of utterance; and — 
(II.) Verbs of the Old Conjugation (all called "irregular"), which after a change of 
vowel sound for the past tense, and after the addition of en or n for the participle, 
have often undergone euphonic changes. 

The first class includes all new verbs, and some others. Verbs of the second class, 
designated by heavy type in the list (p. 202), all belong to the oldest stage of the lan- 
guage. 



236 



VERBS. 



List of Irregular Verbs. 

474. [Forms now out of use or rare are as a rule omitted. Otherwise the list 
contaius all verb-forms of the old conjugation printed in bold-faced type, and all irregu- 
lar forms of the new conjugation printed in plain type. Where only part of the forms 
are irregular, the regular forms are given too.] 



Present. 


Past. 


Perf. Part. 


Present. 


Past. 


T'eef. Part. 


Abide 


abode 


abode 


Cleave * 


( clove 


( cloven 


Awake 


( awoke 




[«p«a 


} cleft 


/ elefl 




| awaked 


awaked 


Cling* 


clung 


clung- 








Clothe 


( clothed 


\ clothed 


Be (pres. 
am) 


| was 


been 


Come 


\ clad 
came 


j clad 
come 






|' borne 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Bear 


f bore 


1 I:— '] 


( !reep 


crept 


crept 


{ bare 


"j born 


Crow 


\ crew 


( 






[ Ibrought forth] 




\ crowed 


| crowed 


Beat 


beat 


/beaten 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Beg-in 


began 


begun 








Bend 


bent 


bent 




( dared 


dared 




f bereft 


(, bereft 


Dare 


/ durst Ventured] 


Bereave 


I bereaved 


j bereaved 


Deal 


dealt 


dealt 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Dig- 


(dug 


J dug 


Bet 


( betted 


( betted 




/ digged 


{ digged 


J bet 


{bet 


Do 


did 


done 


Bid 


j bade 


j bidden 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


jbid 


Jbid 


Dream 


j dreamed 


( dreamed 


Bind 


bound 


bound 


( dreamt 


\ dreamt 


Bite 


bit 


( bitten 


Drink 


drank 


drunk 


\ bit 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Dwell 


( dwelt 


\ dwelt 


Blend 


\ blended 
( blent 


( blended 
\ blent 


\ dwelled 


/ dwelled 


Bless 


blessed 


( blessed 
| blest 


Eat 


ate 


eaten 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Break 


broke 


broken 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Build 


j built 


\ built 


Find 


found 


found 


1 builded 


/ builded 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Burn 


( burned 


J burned 


Fling- 


flung 


flung 


[ burnt 


( burnt 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Burst 
Buy 


burst 
bought 


burst 
bought 


Forget 


forgot 


\ forgotten 
/ forgot 








Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Can 


could 


. 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Cast 


cast 


cast 








Catch 
Chide 
Choose 


caught 

chid 
chose 


caught 
\ chidden 
/ chid 

chosen 


Get 
Gild 


got 
gilded 


{got 
\ gotten 

gilded 
Igilt 



1 Cleave, meaning adhere, is regular. 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



237 



Present. 


Past. 


Perf. Part. 


Present. 


Past. 


Perf. Part. 


Gird 


' girded 
I girt 


f girded 
1 g' irt 


Pay 


paid 


paid 


P PT1 J penned 
ren j pent 


f penned 
(pent 


Give 


gave 


given 


Gq. 


[went] 


gone 


Put 


put 


put 


Grave 


' 


f graven 
{ graved 








{ graved 


** Jetted 


f quit 
{ quitted 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


grown 





quoth 





Hang* 1 


hung 


hung 


Read 


read 


read 


Have 


had 


had 






jrent 
{ rended 
rid 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Rend 


rent 


Heave 


hove 


f hoven 
j heaved 


Rid 


rid 




heaved 


Ride 


rode 


ridden 


Hew 


hewed 


| hewed 
jhewn 


Ring 


rang 


rung 






Rise 


rose 


risen 


Hide 


hid 


j hidden 
[hid 


Rive 
Run 


rived 


f riven 
{ rived 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


ran 


run 


Hold 


held 


held 








Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Saw 


sawed 


f sawed 

( sawn 

said 

seen 


Keep 
Kneel 


kept 
knelt 

kneeled 


kept 
[ knelt 
j kneeled 


Say 
See 


said 
saw 


Knit 


knit 
knitted 


(knit 
} knitted 


Seek 
Sell 


sought 
sold 


sought 
sold 


Know 


knew 


known 


Send 


sent 


sent 








Set 


set 


set 


Lade 


laded 


f laded 

| laden 

laid 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 






Shall 


should 





Lay 


laid 


Shape 


shaped 


f shaped 


Lead 


led 


led 






1 shapen 


Leap 


leaped 

leapt 

learned 


| leaped 

1 leapt 
| learned 


Shave 
Shear 


shaved 
sheared 


j shaved 
( shaven 
[ sheared 
I shorn 


Learr 


learnt 


1 learnt 






Leave 


left 


left 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Shine J shone 


f shone 
{ shined 


Let 


let 


let 




shmed 


Lie 


lay 


lain 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 








Show 


showed 


j shown 
{ showed 


Make 


made 


made 


' 


May 
Mean 


might 





Shred 


shred 


shred 


meant 


meant 


Shrink 


shrank 


f shrunk 


Meet 


met 


met 


shrunk 


j shrunken 


Mow 


mowed 


f mowed 
{ mown 


Shrive 




f shriven 








shrived 


( 


Must 








Shut 


shut 


shut 


Ought 






Sing 


sang 
sung 


sung 








Sink 


sank 


sunk 


Pass 


passed 


f passed 
( past 


Sit 
Slay 


sat 
slew 


sat 
slain 




i 


Hang, meaning ca 


ise death, is r 


jgular. 





238 



VERBS. 



Present. 


Past. 


Pkpf. Part. 


Present. 


Past. 


Perf. Part. 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


String 


strung 


strung 


Slide 


slid 


f siidden 
jslid 


Strive 
Strow 


strove 
{ st rowed 


striven 
f strown 


Sling 


slang- 


slung 




Slink 


slunk 


slunk 


Swear 


swore 


sworn 


Slit 


slit 


slit 


Sweat 


f sweat 
( sweated 


J sweat 

( sweated 


Smell 


J smelled 
{ smelt 


f smelled 
( smelt 


Sweep 
Swell 


swept 




Smite 


smote 


smitten 


| 

( swelled 


f swollen 

{ swelled 


Sow 


sowed 


f sowed 
{ sown 








Swim 


swam 


swum 


Speak 


f spoke 
( spake 


I spoken 


Swing 


swung 


swung 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Take 


took 


taken 


Spell 


f spelled 
{ spelt 


f spelled 
| spelt 


Teach 


taught 


taught 


Tear 


tore 


torn 


Spend 


spent 


spent 


Tell 


told 


told 


Spill 


f spilled 
{ spilt 


f spilled 
1 spilt 


Think 


thought 


thought 


Thrive 


| throve 
( thrived 


( thriven 
( thrived 


Spin 


spun 


spun 




Spit 


| spit 
| spat 


I spit 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Split 


split 


r Sp11 .^ , 


Tread 


trod 


j trodden 
( trod 


Spoil 


f spoiled 

( spoilt 


J spoiled 
{ spoilt 






Spread 


spread 


spread 


Wake 


f waked 
( woke 


waked 


Spring- 


sprang 


sprung 






Stand 


stood 


stood 


"Wear 


wore 


worn 


Stave 


f staved 
{ stove 


| staved 
{ stove 


Weave 


wove 


woven 




Weep 


wept 


wept 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Wet 


wet 


wet 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Will i 


would 





Sting 


stung 


stung 


Win 


won 


won 


Stink 


f stank 
| stunk 


[ stunk 


Wind 
Wit 


wound 
wist 


wound 


Strew 


j 


f strewn 


Work 


f worked 
( wrought 


f worked 
{ wro 1 1 




( strewed 


Stride 


strode 


stridden 


Wring 


wrung 


wrung 


Strike 


struck 


| struck 
1 stricken 


Write 


wrote 


written 



EXERCISE 293. 

1. I it now. 2. I it yesterday. 3. I have it to-day. 

Fill the blanks with the principal parts of the following verbs : — 
Bear; beat; begin; bite; blow; break; bring; buy; catch; choose; 
do ; draw 7 ; drink ; drive ; eat ; find ; forget ; forsake ; freeze ; give ; 
have; hide; know; lay; leave; make; mean; rend; ride; ring; see; 
seek ; set ; shake ; show ; slay ; smite ; sow ; speak ; spin ; spring ; 
strike; take; throw; weave; wear; wring; write. 
1 Will, meaning bequeath, is regular. 



VERB-PHEASES. 239 

EXERCISE 294. 

1. They may . 2. They yesterday. 3. They had already . 

Use the principal parts of the following verbs to fill the blanks : — 

Become ; bid ; come ; crow ; fall ; flee ; fly ; grow ; lie ; rise ; raise ; 
shine ; shrink ; sing ; sit ; slide ; stand ; steal ; stride ; strive ; swear ; 
swim ; think ; tread. 



D. VERB-PHRASES. 
SUBSTITUTES FOE, INFLECTED FORMS. 

475. English verbs have no changes in form other than 
those already mentioned. In some languages, the number 
of forms is much greater ; but in English, all other varia- 
tions in time, and so on, must be expressed in a round- 
about way by what are called Verb-phrases. 

476. Verb-phrases are made by using some root- 
infinitive or participle as the complement of another 
verb. As, — 

He | will go. They | have -waited. She | may write. 
It | is coming. It | was built. 

477. The verbs that are used with infinitives and par- 
ticiples merely to make verb-phrases, are called Auxiliary 
(i.e., helping^) verbs. 

478. The Principal Parts of the Auxiliary verbs are, — 

Past Perfect 

-rAbi. Participle. 

did done 

was been 

had had 



Present. 


Past. 


PERFECT 

Participle. 


Present 


shall 


should 





must 


will 


would 





do 


may 


might 





be 


can 


could 





have 



Present. 


Past. 


canst 


couldst 


dost, doest 


didsl 


art 


wast, wert 


hast 


hadst 



240 verbs. 

(a) The indicative forms used in the solemn or poetic style, with 

thou as subject, are, — 

Present. Past. 

shalt shouldst 

wilt wouldst 

™yest I niig htest 

mayst > 



1. Future Tense. 
Phrases made with shall and WILL. 

479. When we wish to predict that anything is to 
happen in time to come, we say, — 

I shall take ; He will take ; 1 
using the present tense of "shall" and of "will" to help 
us in expressing the idea of taking as future. 

If we take the phrases apart, the real meaning will be, — 
I am obliged to take ; He intends taking, or resolves to take ; 
for I shall really means I owe, and I will means I resolve. 

480. Future Tense-phrases are formed with shall or will 
and a root-infinitive, and denote future time. 

481. The parts of any verb-phrase may be separated by other 
words ; as in — 

He will not go. We shall, in all probability, fail. 

Will she not sing? Shall you and your friends remain? 

482. By carefully choosing between the different uses 
of shall and will (§ 515), we can make future phrases 
that will promise, instead of predict. 

1 Do not think that " take" is the real verb here: " shall " or " will " is the verb, ami 
the infinitive "take" is the object of it. The phrase that they together make is called 
the future tense of the indicative; for the auxiliaries have lost much of their original 
meaning, and are now little more than signs of the future tense. 



POTENTIAL FORMS. 241 

EXERCISE 295. 

Make sentences, using the future tense of each of these forms : — 
Went ; caught ; drove ; blown ; hid ; trod ; rejoiced ; sang ; sprung ; 
said ; lied ; lain ; came ; flew ; flow. 

2. Potential Forms. 
May, CAN, and MUST vised as Auxiliaries. 

483. May, can, and must are used with root-infinitives 
to make what are called Potential phrases, that express 
what is possible, conditional, or obligatory. 

May implies permission, can implies ability or power, 
must implies obligation or necessity; but, as they often 
lose their proper meaning and become mere auxiliaries, 
they are given as parts of the conjugation of the verb 
that they help. 

484. The present forms may, can, and must generally 
give a present meaning. Thus : — 

You may go; i.e., you have permission to go. 

We can give ; i.e., we are able to give. 

The engine can draw the train ; i.e., it lias the power to draw it. 

I must go ; i.e., I am obliged to go. 

It must be sold ; i.e., the sale of it is necessary. 

485. May and can sometimes have a future or subjunctive mean- 
ing ; as in — 

You may slip — perhaps you will slip. 

I shall come if I can ; i.e., if it be possible. 

486. The past forms might and could may give a past 
meaning to the phrase ; as in — 

He could not wait == he was not able to wait ; 



242 VERBS. 

Or they may give a subjunctive meaning as of something 
merely thought of. Thus : — 

If he were here, he could not wait. 

He might be useful, though hard to manage. 

487. Should, the past tense of "shall," is sometimes used with a 
present meaning to denote a duty or obligation ; as in — 

You should do as you are bidden. [See § 519.] 

488. Potential Phrases denote permission, power, obliga- 
tion, or necessity, and are formed by using the root-infinitive with 
may, can, must, might, could, would, or should* 

EXERCISE 296. 

Using the infinitive of each of the following words, make sen- 
tences containing potential phrases, and tell whether they denote 
permission, poiver, obligation, etc. : — 

Speak ; borne ; broken ; chid ; drew ; feel ; sat ; froze ; slain ; shod ; 
smote; swung; swept; thrust; raised; rose. 

3. Perfect Tenses. 
Have as an Auxiliary. 

489. I. Present Perfect. Whenever we wish to speak 
of an action as completed at the present time, we say, — 

not " I buy it to-day," but " I have bought it to-day," 
using the present tense of the auxiliary have, and the 
perfect participle of some verb. So, too, — 

The town has grown this year. 

It has occurred twice this century. 

490. II. Past Perfect. In speaking of an action as com- 
pleted at some definite past time, we use the past form had 
with the perfect participle. Thus : — 

They had gone before I arrived. 



PROGRESSIVE PHRASES. 243 

491. III. Future Perfect. If we wish to speak of an 
action as already finished or completed at some future 
time, we use the future tense, siiall or will have, with 
the perfect participle, and say, — 

The sun will have risen before our arrival. 

493. Phrases that denote completed or perfected actions are 
called Perfect Tenses, and are formed by combining the perfect 
participle of any yerb with the various tenses of have, 

493. Thus almost any of the forms that we have studied may be 
made perfect. For example : — 

Simple Infinitive, (to) do ; Perfect Infinitive, (to) have done. 

Potential : Present, I may go ; Present Perfect, I may have gone. 

494. We see then that by inflection and by the use of 

auxiliaries we form six tenses ; namely, — 

Present, Past, Future, 

Present Perfect, Past Perfect, Future Perfect. 

EXERCISE 297. 

Tell whether the verb shows present, past, or future time, and give 
the corresponding perfect form of that tense; i.e., the perfect tense- 
phrase : — 

1. He sings well. 2. He wrote yesterday. 3. They will go to- 
morrow. 4. They could not wait. 5. They should obfy their parents. 
6. She had an instructor. 7. We shall set out on his return. 8. Can 
it be true? 9. What could he answer? 10. Would he welcome you? 

4. Progressive Verb-phrases. 
Be as an Auxiliary. 

495. To express what is customary or habitual, we use 
the simpler forms of the yerb ; as, — 



244 VERBS. 

She paints, He studied law, They will preach , 

but to represent an action as continuing or actually in 
progress, we use still another form of phrase. Thus: — 

She is painting. He was studying law. They will be preaching. 

Here the verb be has for its complement not an 
ordinary adjective, but the imperfect or active participle 
of the verb, and the two together make what is called a 
Progressive phrase. 

496. To make a Progressive Verh-plirase we use the active 
participle of any verb as complement of the proper tense of he. 

All the preceding forms and tenses may be made progressive. 
Thus : — 

He may or should try ; he may or should be trying. 
They have or had tried ; they have or had been trying. 

EXERCISE 298. 
Change these verbs to progressive verb-phrases : — 

Goes; went; has gone; will go; had gone; will have gone; dye: 
must go ; may rise ; lies ; lays ; can sit ; will wait ; walked ; could see ; 
drew ; shall fix ; come ; fought ; had done ; may have seen. 

5. Emphatic Verb-phrases. 
Do as an Auxiliary. 

497. Instead of the simple present or past " He tries," 
" I tried," " Try," we may say more emphatically, — 

He does try, I did try, Do try ; 

using the verb do, and the infinitive "try" as the object of 
it. Here do seems to have lost its ordinary meaning, 



EMPHATIC PHKASES. 245 

perform, and serves only as an auxiliary to make an 
Emphatic form of the verb try. 

498. When we ask or deny, as in interrogative or negative 

sentences, these phrases are almost always used instead of the simple 
forms. Thus, we usually say, — 

Does he try? Did I try? He does not try. I did not try. (Not 
" Tries he ? Tried I ? He tried not, etc.") 

EXERCISE 299. 

Change the following expressions to the emphatic, the negative, 
and the interrogative forms: — 

1. They learn. 2. We make hats. 3. They settled the country. 
4. The plan works well. 5. Their journey ended. 6. He had cour- 
age. 7. Time brings changes. 8. We drew the sword. 

6. Passive Verb -phrases. 

Forins of be as Auxiliaries,, 

EXERCISE 300. 

1. In each sentence tell the word that shows who or what performs 
the action. 2. Tell the word that shows who or what receives the 
action, or is affected by it. 3. Select each subject that represents 
the actor. 4. Select those subjects that name the receiver of the 
action. 5. What difference do you notice in the meaning of each 
two sentences ? 6. In their form : ? 

, ( The breeze fills the sails. 

\ The sails are filled by the breeze. 
2 j ^"e celebrated the victory. 

(. The victory was celebrated by us. 
o ( Messengers will carry the news. 

\ The news will be carried by messengers. 
A ( The government should protect the Indians. 

( The Indians should be protected by the government- 
Congress has enacted a new tariff law. 

I A new tariff law has been enacted by Congress. 



5. j Co 

iA: 



246 VERBS. 

499. All the verb-forms that we have thus far studied belong to 
what is called the active voice, — that is, all of them represent what the 
subject names as acting, and not as acted upon, — and as there is no 
single form in English that has a passive meaning, we are forced to 
use still another kind of phrase. 

500. We know that the perfect participle of transitive 
verbs may always have a passive meaning; as, — 

driven, spoken, hired ; 
and if we use this participle as an adjective complement 
with different tenses of the verb be ; as in — 

I am driven, It was spoken, You will be hired, 
we form verb-phrases which represent what the subject 
names, not as acting, but as acted upon, and which are 
therefore called Passive verb-phrases. 

501» Passive verb-phrases are made by using a passive par- 
ticiple with the various tenses of be, so as to represent what the 
subject names as receiving the action. 

502. In this way any kind of verb-phrases, except the 
progressive, may be made passive. Thus : — 

" I may see," or " I may be seen." 
" They might have stopped," or " They might have been stopped." 

And even progressive phrases are sometimes found in the 
passive form. As in — 

The prisoner was being tried for theft. 

The question is being very thoroughly discussed. 

503. Active and passive forms, or " voices," express 
the same thought when the object of the active form is 
made the subject of the corresponding passive form. 

Thus : — 

He heals the sick. = The sick are healed by him. 
Metals are expanded by heat. = Ileal expands metals. 



PASSIVE PRKASES. 247 

(a) The active form brings the actor into prominence ; the passive, 
the receiver of the action. The passive form is generally used when 
the actor can not or need not be named. As, — 

The watch was stolen. Lost opportunities cannot be regained. 

504. A few intransitive verbs, that, in the active form, are fol- 
lowed by a preposition and its object, are sometimes made passive. In 
such cases the preposition, as an adverbial modifier, becomes almost a 
part of the verb, and its former object becomes the subject of the 
passive phrase. [See § 565.] Thus : — 

ISTo one had thought of this. This had not been thought of. 
Our friends laughed at us. We were laughed at by them. 

EXERCISE 301. 

Change each verb in these sentences into either the passive or the 
active form, without changing the meaning : — 

1. The engine draws the train. 2. The story has been told by 
several writers. 3. England taxed the colonies unjustly. 4. Louisi- 
ana was sold by France in 1803. 5. Marco Polo tells us strange 
stories. 6. The Mississippi was discovered by De Soto in 1541. 
7. The prudent never waste time nor money. 8. The mortgage 
will be foreclosed by the executor. 9. Fire has destroyed the 
poor man's house. 10. Gold is purchased for coinage by the gov- 
ernment. 11. Every patriot will defend the flag. 12. Friendship 
should be strengthened by adversity. 13. Would he believe the 
truth? 14. Paris had been besieged by the Prussians in 1871. 
15. Heaven is not mounted to on wings of dreams. 16. Some- 
body will probably attend to the matter. 17. Will any one interfere 
with his rights ? 

505. If we add to the inflected forms of a verb the 
various phrases that are based upon it, we shall have 
what may be called the Complete Conjugation of a Verb. 

The following tables present at one view all the common forms and 
phrases of a verb. Any verb may be conjugated by substituting its 
inflected forms for those of drive. 



248 



VEKBS. 



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beg 


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bt X be fl 


bod 


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249 



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250 VERBS. 



EXERCISE 302. 

1. Make a list of the (1) potential phrases; (2) progressive 
phrases; (3) passive phrases; (4) emphatic phrases; (5) 
s-forms ; (0) present perfect phrases ; (7) past perfect phrases. 

Go; goes; went; have gone; has gone; will go; do go; did go; 
does go ; are lost ; are losing ; was ; were ; were he ; may be ; may be 
seen; can be singing; must sew; could sew; sews; has done; has 
been done; have been doing; might be; could be heard; might be 
hearing; should write; should be written; should have been writing; 
is growing; was growing; can have been growing ; would sign; had 
been; had brought; had been brought; stands; stood; stand; did 
stand; was standing; will come; shall be coming; will have lost 
will be lost ; has been lost ; to be ; is written ; to be made ; making 
having made ; being worn ; to have been wearing ; has had ; had had 
did do ; does do ; would have had. 

2. Tell the tense, mood, and form of each verb-phrase. Thus : — 

" May have gone " is a present perfect potential phrase of the verh go.- 
" Should be brought " is a pa6t potential passive of the verb bring. 

3. Give the composition of each phrase ; i.e., tell of what verb- 
forms it is composed. Thus : — 

" AVould have been broken" is made up of the past would, the infinitive have, the 
perfect participle been, and the passive participle broken. 



EXERCISE 303. 

Write the following-named forms of bring, lay, tread, wear, obey, 
come, write, do, buy, have: — 

1. Present indicative progressive, third-singular. 2. Past indica- 
tive passive. 3. Future indicative. 4. Future indicative passive. 
5. Present perfect indicative progressive, third-singular. G. Past 
perfect potential passive. 7. Present indicative emphatic. 8. Past 
potential passive. 9. Present perfect indicative passive. 10. Present 
indicative (with subject "he"). 11. Present subjunctive (with "he" 
for subject) . 



PASSING. 251 

506. How to Parse a Verb. A verb or verb-phrase is 
parsed by telling its 1. tense; 2. mood; (3. phrase-form ;) 
4. kind; 5. principal parts; (6. number-form, if peculiar;) 
and 7. subject. 

Note. — This order of statement though not material is a convenient one, since it 
presents the facts as they appear in the successive elements of a verb-phrase. 

507. Forms for Parsing-. YTo be varied at the option 
of the teacher.l 

1. [[When] (my) ship comes [in]"] I shall be rich. 



2. He spoke [loud] [that they might hear him.] 

3. ["After we had been drifting [three days]! (a) sail was seen. 

+ 1 * 

comes is the present indicative of the complete verb "come, came, 
come " ; s-form with the third-singular subject ship. 

shall be is the future indicative of the copulative verb "be, was, been"; 
its subject is I. 

spoke is the past indicative of the complete verb "speak, spoke, 
spoken " ; its subject is he. 

might hear is a past potential 1 of the transitive verb "hear, heard, 
heard " ; its subject is they. 

had been drifting is the past perfect indicative progressive of the com- 
plete verb " drift, drifted, drifted " ; its subject is we. 

was seen is a past indicative passive verb-phrase formed from the 
transitive verb "see, saw, seen"; was is used with the third- 
singular subject sail. 

EXERCISE 304. 

Parse the verbs in these sentences : — 

1. "Where shall you be? 2. It cannot be found. 3. How T busy you 
are. 4. Go quickly to the rear. 5. Be careful how you speak. 
6. The sun might have risen. 7. No one has yet seen it. 8. Would 
he go if he were I? 9. Were not the drums beating? 10. You should 

1 Potential phrases have sometimes a subjunctive and sometimes an indicative mean- 
ing; but it is not expected that all learners will discriminate between the two uses. 



252 



VERBS. 



have gone at once. 11. The mill can never grind again with the 
water that is past. 12. We might have been called. 13. Nothing 
must be assumed. 14. The train will have gone before In- arrives. 
15. Could he have fled alone? 16. Is it rising now? 17. Did he 
write at your bidding? 18. Do not be discouraged by trifles. 
19. Come ye in peace, or come ye in war? 20. Ask, and it shall be 
given you. 21. Could it not have been found sooner? 22. I wish I 
were sailing the seas. 23. Have you had enough? 24. How do yon 
do this morning? 25. He had had the money for a week. 20. I am 
expecting to see him soon. 27. Take heed lest he fall. 28. If he 
were going he would take it. 29. When he next doth ride abroad, 
may I be there to see. 30. You could not have been listening, or you 
would have heard me. 31. There never has been another such man. 
32. Might it not have been done better? 



SUMMARY: FORM FOR PARSING VERBS. 



508. 



(1) 



- is the 



Fornis. 

Tenses. 
f Present 
Past 
Future 
Pres. Perf. 
Past Perf. 
Put. Perf. 

Kinds. 



(2) 



(3) 



Moods and Phrases 
r Indicative 
Subjunctive 
Imperative 
Potential 
Emphatic 
Progressive 
^ Passive 



r Complete 
(4) Of (or from) the <j .Copulative Verb, 



. Transitive 



Prut. Parts. 

(Present) 

(5) (Past) 

(Perf. Part.) 



Construction. 

Form for Subject. 



(6H 



f (common form) has for its subject 

! s-form 



>■ with third-singular subject - 
rm ) 



solemn (eth) for 

solemn (est) form with second-singular subject thou. 



PRINCIPAL PAETS CONFUSED. 253 

E. ERRORS IN THE USE OF VERB-FORMS. 

509. Wrong forms of the verb are very common. It is a promi- 
nent word, inflected more than any other part of speech, and hence 
leads one who is careless" to make many conspicuous blunders. 

510. Some of the very worst mistakes are made by 
substituting one of the principal parts for another. 

For example: Having as principal parts, pres. do, past did, per/. 
part, done, we should say in stating a past fact, " He did the work," 
not " He done the work " : but in making a present perfect phrase we 
should say, " He has done the work," not " He has did the work." 

511. Principal Tarts Confused, I. Do not use the per- 
fect participle as a substitute for the past tense. 

II. Never use the past tense instead of a perfect participle 
in making a verb-phrase. 

EXERCISE 305. 

Select the proper form of the verbs, and give the reason for 
your choice. 

1. Who (did, done) it? 2. Soon it had (sank, sunk) to rise no 
more. 3. The pears were all (shook, shaken) off by the wind. 
4. This lace was (wove, woven) in France. 5. He (ran, run) all the 
way. 6. They (come, came) in late yesterday. 7. He soon (begun, 
began) to be weary. 8. Charles and I C s wum, swam) across the 
river. 9. I (saw, seen) that yours was wrong. 10. He has (risen, 
rose) from poverty to wealth. 11. Our club was never (beat, beaten) 
before. 12. If I had been (showed, shown), I should know how to do 
it. 13- She had (tore, torn) it off. 

14. I (seen, saw) him yesterday. 15. You might have (chose, 
chosen) something better. 16. Our friends (come, came) last week. 
17. You must do as you are (bid, bade, bidden). 18. Some (drank, 
drunk) too much. 19. What evil has (befallen, befell) them? 20. She 
may have (went, gone) to Europe. 21. Have you ever (sang, sung) 
this tune? 22. Have they (drank, drunk) it all? 23. Have they 
(broke, broken) out the roads yet? 



254 VERBS. 



EXERCISE 306. 

Give the principal parts of the verb, tell which should be used, 
and why. 

1. Have you never (shrink) from your duty? 2. She may have 
been (smite) down. 3. His signature was (write) indistinctly. 4. It 
cannot have been (steal). 5. You might have (take) more pains. 

6. -David (sling) the stone, and (smite) him on the forehead. 7. They 
have (strive) to do their best. 8. Intemperance has (slay) its thou- 
sands. 9. My directions were (forget). 10. The pond was ( i 
over. 11. Some one has (break) my pen. 

512. Some verbs have somewhat similar forms that are 
liable to be confounded. Especial care must be taken in 
using them. 

513. Verbs confused. Bo not use one verb for another 
of similar form but of different meaning. 

EXERCISE 307. 

1. Learn the principal parts of these verbs, and their meaning : — 
Present. Past. Active Part. Perfect Part. 

lie (rest) lay (rested) lying (resting) lain (r 

lay (place) laid (placed) laying (placing) laid (placed) 

sit (rest) sat (rested) sitting (resting) sat (rested) 

set (place) set (placed) setting (placing) set (placed) 

2. Fill the blanks with the appropriate form of lie or lay, and its 
meaning. Thus : — 

" I laid (or placed) it on the table, and there it lies (or rests). 

1. Where did you it? 2. How long has it there? 3. At 

what wharf does your yacht ? 4. It on the grass yesterday. 

5. It has there for years. 6. They have the corner-stone. 

7. He in bed till nine o'clock. 8. She has been there all 

day. 9. The ship to during the storm. 10. A thousand miles 

of pipe have been , 



IMPROPER FORMS. 255 

11. She now sleeping quietly. 12. We over two days in 

Montreal. 13. down, Bruno ! 14. He it carefully away in 

his safe, and there it has ever since. 15. it on the table, 

and let it there. 16. They have been new tracks. 17. Has 

it been there long? 18. He was by the brook. 19. The 

body in state three days. 20. The city on the left bank. 

3. Fill the following blanks with the appropriate form of sit or 
set, and its meaning : — 

1. Come into the room. 2. The mother-bird is in her 

nest. 3. We out twelve elms last arbor-day. 4. Where did he 

? 5. I it on the shelf, and there it now. 6. Won't 

you here? 7. He motionless for an hour. 8. I have been 

in the arbor while you have been out your plants. 9. The 

court will in June. 10. Was he there then ? 

514. Improper Forms. Never use any improper verb- 
forms ; as, " drawee! " for " drew." [§ 92.] 

EXERCISE 308. 

1. Select the proper form of the verb for each of these 
sentences : — 

1. He has (overdraw) his account. 2. He (throw) his adversary 
yesterday. 3. His will had been {break). 4. Have you (heat) the 
water? 5. Has the brook ever (overflow) its banks? 6. I (know) you 
would (lay, lie) down. 7. When was the horse (shoe) last? 8. He 
(ain't, isn't) as wise as he appears. 9. The moon has (light) us on 
our way. 10. Your coat doesn't (set, sit, Jit) well. 

2. Distinguish between (1) born and borne, (2) durst and dared, 
(3) hung and hanged, (4) may and can, (5) learn and teach, and 
use the correct form in the following blanks : — 

1. He was in Ohio. He was to his grave by his friends. 

2. The king not "sign the warrant. We them to leap the 

brook. 3. Nathan Hale was as a spy. Have the pictures been 

securely ? 4. I shut the window. you discover the 

reason? 5. me to sew. My mother me long ago. 



256 YEEBS. 

515. Whether to use shall or will. The two auxil- 
iaries used in making the future tense have somewhat 
different meanings. 

516. I. Simply to foretell that something is going to 
happen, use shall with "I" or "we" and will with other 

subjects. Thus : — 

We shall fail. I shall return in the spring. 
You, he, they, etc., will find the journey tiresome. 

517. II. To promise or to express a determination of 
the speaker, use will with "I" or "we" and shall with other 

subjects. Thus : — 

We will help you. I will send the money. 

She shall not go alone. They shall vacate the house at once 

EXERCISE 309. 
Tell whether the auxiliary is used to promise, to show determi- 
nation, or simply to foretell : — 

1. I shall enter college next year. 2. I will have an education. 
3. My friends will help me. 4. Nothing shall stand in my way. 
shall answer his letter to-morrow. 6. The letter shall be answered al 
once. 7. I will walk; no one shall carry me. 8. I shall walk ; no 
one will carry me. 9. You shall go with me, if you wish. 1<». We 
will assist you at any time. 11. I shall be punished. He shall be 
punished. 12. Shall you attend the fair? Will you go with me? 

518. III. In questions use the same auxiliary that would 
be correctly used in the reply. Thus : — 

If we wish to exact a promise^ like " I will wait " or " We will go," 
we ask, "Will you wait or go?" But if we wish one to predict a 
future action by saying, "I shall go," we must ask, " Shall you go?" 

Exception. Will is never used in a question with "I" or "we" as 
subject. Thus we say, — 

« Shall r find you there ? " not " Will I," etc. 
"Shall we come early?" not "Will we," etc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE FORMS. 257 

519. Should and would follow the same rules as " shall " 
and " will" Thus : — 

I should not need your help, and, if I did, I would not ask it. 
I asked him whether he should go or stay (" Shall you go or 
stay?"), and he said lie should stay ("I shall stay"). 
He said that he would go (" I will go "). 
He feared lest he should fall ("I shall fall"). 

EXERCISE 310. 

Fill each blank with a form of shall or will, giving the rule that 
guides yon. 

1. We expect to hear from you. 2. If I do not study, I 

grow up in ignorance. 3. They receive the money to-morrow. 

4. I was afraid that I lose my position. 5. We be pleased 

to hear that he soon return. 6. If you telegraph, we come 

at once. 7. When we call? When you go with me? 8. I 

fear that we have unpleasant weather. 9. Where you be 

next week? 10. I like to go to town, and go if I could. 

11. I be delighted if you call. 12. I have been ill if I 

had gone. 13. you do as he bids you? — — you do what I ask? 

14. you have sold it for that price? 15. I have asked for 

more time. 

520. Subjunctive forms are peculiar only — 

(1) In always omitting the endings s, st, eth, of the 
corresponding indicative ; 

(2) In that be is used in place of am, art, is, or are, 
and were in place of was, wast, or wert. 

521. Present Subjunctive forms are now used chiefly 
in clauses expressing a supposition or a condition to be 
decided in the future. As in — 

If he ask a pardon, shall you grant it? 

If he go, he will not be missed. 
In such clauses, indicative forms are also used by good 
writers and speakers. 



258 VERBS. 

522. Past Subjunctive forms must be used in clauses 
expressing a supposition or a wish contrary to the fact. 
As in — 

If he were ready (but he is not), he could go. 
T wish I were well (but I am not) . 

(a) Indicative forms must be used to express what is assumed as a 
fact. As in — 

If he intends to go, he should go now. 
Though he is far from well, he is industrious. 
If he was poor, he was honest. 

EXERCISE 311. 

Fill the blank with what seems the appropriate form of the verb 
be, and give the reason for your choice. 

1. What would you say if you asked? 2. I wish I 

ten years younger. 3. If the book in the library, you may take 

it. 4. If the book in the library, you might take it. 5. O that 

it possible ! 6. If he needy, we should help him. 7. Though 

he needy, he will get no help. 8. If he insane, his actions 

do not show it. 9. If I to be defeated, I should still persevere. 

10. It would be a great disgrace if he to fail. 11. I will come 

to-morrow if the weather fine. 12. I will call upon him if he 

now at home. 13. Take care lest it injured. 



Errors in the Use of the s-form of Verbs. 

523. We have learned that the s-form of verbs is never 
used except in the present tenses of the indicative mood, 
with subjects that in meaning are of the third person and 
of the singular number. 

524. General Mule, A third-singular subject, and no 
other, requires the sf'orm of the verb. 

It will be understood that this rule can apply only to the present indicative tenses. 



EREOKS IN THE USE OF THE S-FORM. 259 

525. Was. Use ivas ivith "J" or a third-singular sub- 
ject, but never with " you " or any plural subject. 

EXERCISE 312. 

Point out the errors in the following sentences, and correct them, 
giving your reason. Tims : — 

"He (don't, doesn't) try." The third-singular subject "he" requires does, the 
s-forru of the verb do. Say "He doesn't try." 

" There (has, have) never been many of that kind." " Many" is not a third-singular 
subject, hence the s-forrn has would be improper. The sentence should read, " There 
never have been many," etc. Rule : A third-singular subject, and no other, requires 
the s-form of the verb. 

1. Neither of them (were, was) correct. 2. From that source 
(comes, come) all our troubles. 3. It (don't, doesn't) take long to cross 
the ocean. 4. (Was, were) you at the concert last night? 5. My 
scissors (needs, need) sharpening. 6. The memoranda (is, are) lost. 
7. There (has, have) been many disappointments on this trip. 8. The 
fragrance of roses (fill, fills) the air. 9. Each of the states (have, 
has) two senators. 10. Either of those reasons (are, is) sufficient. 
11. Harder times never (were, was) seen. 12. The six days' work (was, 
were) ended. 13. What (has, have) become of your friends? 11. The 
meaning of these words (are, is) easily found. 15. Which of these 
fractions (are, is) the larger? 16. Everybody (have, has) offered us 
congratulations. 17. There (is, are) a few more to be had. 18. There 
(has, have) been several lost on these rocks. 

526. It is the meaning rather than the form of a subject that 
affects the form of the verb. For example, in the sentence — 

The Three Clerks was written by Anthony Trollope, 

the subject is singular in meaning, for it names a single book. 

527. 1. Collective nouns are generally singular in 
meaning. Thus : — 

The jury renders its verdict. Our regiment loses its colonel. 
Here we refer to the collecton as a whole or unit, and the s-form of 
the verb is required. 



260 VERBS. 

2. Sometimes, however, we refer to actions of the indi- 
viduals in the collection. Thus : — 

The jury have returned to their homes. 
The regiment hold different opinions of him. 

Here the meaning is plural, and the s-form of the verb would be 
wrong. 

528. Collective Subjects require the s-form of the verb 
only in referring to the collection as a unit. 

EXERCISE 313. 

Tell which form of the verb should be used here, and give your 
reason : — 

1. The army (was, were) nearly annihilated. 2. The band (has, 
have) brought (its, their) instruments. 3. (Is, are) your family 
well? 4. The committee (was, were) unanimous in the choice. 
5. The fleet (was, were) separated. 0. The whole herd ran into 
the sea and (was, were) drowned. 7. Our club (hold, holds) (its. 
their) meetings every month. 8. (Have, has) the company broken 
up? 9. A large number (was, were) dissatisfied. 10. The number 
present (were, was) large. 



Connected Subjects. 

529. Singular expressions joined by and are generally 
taken together as a plural subject. Thus : — 

He and I are going. Industry and perseverance "win success. 
Making laws and enforcing them are very different. 

530. Subjects joined by AND. Use the s-form of the 
verb with singular subjects connected by and — only 

(1) When they name the same person <>r thing ; or 

(2) When they are preceded by each, every, many a* 
or no. 



ERRORS IN THE USE OF THE S-FORM. 261 

For example : — 

(1) My friend and helper has deserted me. 

(1) A wheel and axle transmits the power. 

(2) Each lady and gentleman has received a copy. 
(2) Every city and town was visited. 

531. Subjects joined by OR or NOR. Use the s-form of 
the verb with third-singular subjects connected by or or nor. 
Thus : — 

One or the other visits London annually. 
Neither money nor influence was needed. 

EXERCISE 314. 

Select the proper form of the verb, and justify your selection. 
Thus : — 

"Neither hope nor courage remains." The s-form is here required, for the subject 
consists of two singular nouns, "hope" and "courage," which are joined by nor, and 
hence are to be taken separately. 

" Both hope and courage are needed." The s-form of the verb would be wrong, for 
the two nouns " hope " and " courage " joined by and make a plural subject. 

"Every boy and girl has recited." The connected nouns " boy " and "girl" make 
a third-singular subject, for they are preceded by the adjective every, and so are to be 
taken separately. Hence the s-form of the verb is required. 

1. In every muscle there (is, are) strength and vigor. 2. Every 
beggar and spendthrift (receive, receives) his aid. 3. Neither father 
nor mother (was, were) living. 4. Every word and even even- 
thought (is, are) known. 5. Each day and hour (bring, brings) 
(its, their) duties. 6. The rise and fall of the tide (are, is) to 
be explained. 7. The butcher and the baker (has, have) sent in 
(his, their) (bill or bills). 8. There (is, are) fighting and blood- 
shed on the frontier. 9. A thousand dollars (are, is) too much to 
pay. 10. There (were, was) neither anger nor impatience in his tone. 
11. To seem and to be (is, are) not always the same. 12. A beautiful 
poem or picture (has, have) a refining influence. 

13. Whether to advance or to retreat (were, was) the question. 
14. No pains and no expense (have, has) been spared. 15. Each 
hour, dark fraud or open rapine or protected murder (cry, cries) 
out against them. 16. Every leaf and flower (has, have) faded. 



262 VERBS. 

17. His subject and mine (was, were) the same. 18. There (sleep, 
sleeps) the soldier, statesman, and martyr. 19. Wave alter wave 
(come, conies) rolling in. 20. Neither oil nor alcohol (are, is) as 
heavy as water. 

532. When subjects connecter! by or or nor differ in person or num- 
ber, the one nearest the verb generally controls its form. Thus : — 

Neither she nor I am invited. Either you or he knows it. 
Are you or he going? Xeither he nor his children were saved. 

Expressions like these should generally be avoided. Thus : — 
She is not invited, nor am I. 

533. Of two subjects connected by as well as the first one controls 
the form, of the verb that is expressed, and the second that of a verb 
understood. Thus : — 

The captain, as -well as the crew, was lost. 
The crew, as well as the captain, were sick. 

534. Of tioo subjects, one affirmative and the other negative, the 
affirmative one controls the form of the verb expressed, and the negative 
one that of a verb understood. Thus : — 

Not I but he is the one to go. Xot he but I am going. The war- 
riors, but not the chief, were present. Xot only this habit, but all 
similar ones are pernicious. 

535. As a relative pronoun has no form for number or person, the 
sense of the antecedent controls the form of the verb. Thus : — 

" I that speak unto you am he." " O Thou who changest not ! " 
" Our Father who art in heaven." 

EXERCISE 315. 

Select the proper form of the verb, and give the rule that guides 
you. 

1. Equity, as well as justice, (demand, demands) it. 2. One or 
more persons (was, were) injured. 3. His painting was one of tin- 
best that (was, were) exhibited. 4. Xot the causes, but the result, 
(were, was) stated. 5. You or he (are, is) to go. 6. Either he or I 
(is, am) to go. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

ADVERBS. 
[Review §§ 166-172.] 

A. KINDS. 

536. As to Meaning-. There are many adverbs, and 
they modify in many different ways ; yet they may all 
be divided, according to their meaning, into four princi- 
pal classes : — 

1. Adverbs of Time. As, now, then, always, never, next, last 

2. Adverbs of Place. As, here, there, down, hence, above. 

3. Adverbs of Manner. As, well, ill, thus, so, slowly, wisely, freely. 

4. Adverbs of Degree. As, much, very, almost, too, scarcely, quite. 

537. As to Use. With respect to their use, adverbs 
may be classified as Simple when they merely modify, 
and as Conjunctive when they also connect. 

EXERCISE 316. 

1. What is a clause ? 2. What kinds of clauses have you studied ? 
3. What is an adjective clause? 4. What is a noun-clause? 5. What 
is a conjunctive pronoun ? 6. A relative pronoun ? 7. Give the mean- 
ing of when, where, whence, whither, why, how, in the form of a phrase. 

8. Point out the adjective clauses in the following expressions, and 
tell what each modifies : — 

1. The place on w T hich they stood . 

2. The time at which they started . 

3. The town from which they came . 

4. The land to which they went . 

5. The reason for which they fled 



264 ADVERBS. 

9. What does each prepositional phrase modify? 10. Substitute a 
single word for each phrase. 11. What does the substituted word 
modify ? 12. To what part of speech does it therefore belong ? 

538. From the preceding Exercise we see that in 
adjective dames certain adverbs may be used as the 
equivalent of a phrase made with a conjunctive pro- 
noun and a preposition. Thus : — 

This is the house where (in which) 1 was born. 
Here, as we know, " which " would connect the clause to house, and 
" in which " would modify was horn like an adverb ; so its equivalent 
where does this double duty of modifying and connecting. 

539. Adverbs like when, where, whence, whither, 
why, how, that both modify a verb and at the same 
time connect a clause, are called Conjunctive adverbs. 

So with wherewith, whereon, whereby, and other compounds of where and a prepo- 
sition. 

(a) Conjunctive adverbs used in adjective clauses may be called 
relative adverbs. 



1. Do you know who it is? 

2. Do you know where it is ? 

3. Do you know why he went ? 



EXERCISE 317. 

4. Tell me what he wants. 

5. Tell me when he came. 

6. Tell me whence he came. 

1. In the first three sentences, what is the object of " do know " ? 
2 In the last three sentences, what is the object of " tell " ? 3. What 
kind of clauses may be used as objects ? 4. Parse " who " and " what." 
5. What two uses has each ? 6. How are the other noun-clauses con- 
nected to the rest of the sentence ? 7. To what part of speech do 
where, why, when, whence, belong? 8. What do they modify? 9. What 
have you learned to call such words when they also serve to connect ? 

540. From the foregoing illustrations we see that 
noun-clauses also may be joined to the rest of the sen- 
tence by conjunctive adverbs. Thus : — 

Show me how (— in what way) the problem L solved. 



ADVERB-CLAUSES. 265 

Here how is a conjunctive adverb ; for it takes the place both of the 
conjunctive adjective " what " and of the phrase " in what way," 
which modifies is solved like an adverb. 

EXERCISE 318. 
f Go early. f He died here. • 

1. -I Go at dawn. 2. -j He died at his birthplace. 

[^ Go [when] day breaks. (^ He died [where] he was born. 

1. In the first group of sentences what tells when one is " to go " ? 
2. What kind of modifiers answers the question " when " ? 3. Which 
of the adverb modifiers in the first group is a clause? Why? 4. In 
the second group what answers the question "Where did he die"? 
5. What kind of modifiers tells where f 6. Which modifier in the 
second group is a clause? Analyze it. 7. Like what part of speech 
is it used ? 8. What then will you call it ? 

541. The preceding Exercise shows us that a clause 
may clo the work of an adverb as well as that of an adjec- 
tive or a noun, by showing when, where, ivhy, and so on. 

Thus : — 

Go whenever (= at whatever time) he calls. 
Stand still wherever (= in whatever place) you are. 
Fight as (= in what way) a hero fights. 

These clauses, like adverbs, show when, where, and how one 
is "to go," "to stand," or "to fight," and are therefore 
called Adverb-clauses. 

They are joined to the verb of the sentence either by 
conjunctive adverbs or simply by conjunctions. [See 
§ 579.] 

542. An Adverb-clause is one used in a sentence like an 
adverb. 

543. A Conjunctive adverb is one that modifies some word 
in a clause, and connects the clause to the rest of the sentence. 

544. A Simple adverb is one that modifies without connecting. 



266 ADVERBS. 

EXERCISE 319. 

1. Select the clauses, and tell their kind. 

2. Point out the adverbs, tell their kind and what they modify. 
1. When does the moon change? 2. Can you tell wherein they 

differ? 3. Who knows whence he came? 4. Where there is a will 
there is a way. 5. When the wine is in, the wit is out. 6. I know a 
bank where the wild thyme grows. 7. Whither I go ye know not. 
8. Come as the waves come when navies are stranded. 9. Thou canst 
not tell whence it cometh nor whither it goeth. 10. He works where 
the sun never shines. 11. Can you tell wdiy the tides rise and fall? 
12. They are found in lands where frost is unknown. 13. How can 
the stream be turned? 14. Whither thou goest I will go, and where 
thou lodgest I will lodge. 15. When the pyramids were built is un- 
certain. 16. I must know when he goes, where he goes, and how he 
goes. 17. This is the place where Franklin was born. 

545. Interrogative Adverbs. The adverbs how, when, where, 
why, whither, whence, when used to introduce a question, may be called 
interrogative adverbs. As in — 

How is it done? "When did it happen ? Whence came he? 

546. Modal Adverbs. Certain adverbs, like not, surely, 
certainly, perhaps, indeed, etc., are sometimes used to show that a 
statement is made in a positive or negative or doubtful w T ay. Thus : — 

Surely you will not leave me. Perhaps he knows no better. 
When so used they may be called modal adverbs. 

547. Kesponsives. The words yes, yea, no, nay, used as re- 
sponses to questions, were once used like adverbs. We may call 
them responsives : but, like interjections, they do not properly belong 
to the parts of speech, being used now in the place of entire sentences. 
Thus: — 

" Are you coming ? " " Yes " ; (that is, "I am coming ") . 

548. Phrase-adverbs. Some little phrases, generally used as 
adverbs, cannot well be separated, and may be called phrase-adverbs. 
Among them are the following : — 



INFLECTION AND USES. 267 

At length; at last; at all ; at once ; as yet; by far ; for good; at least; 
in general ; in vain; in short ; of old ; of late ; from below ; etc. 

549. There. The adverb there is frequently used without much 
of its original meaning to introduce a sentence in which the verb 
comes before its subject. Thus : — 

There were a thousand there. 

When so used it may be called an expletive. [See page 153.] 



B. INFLECTION AND USES. 

550. Comparison. Adverbs have, in general, no change 

of form. A few, however, are compared like adjectives. 

Thus : — 

soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest. 

(«) The adverbs ill, far, little, much, near, well, are 

compared irregularly like the adjectives of the same form. 
[See § 398.] 

551. Many adverbs that are not compared may have 
a comparative or superlative meaning added by the use 
of more and most, or less and least. As, — 

quickly, more quickly, most quickly ; less quickly, least quickly. 

552. An adverb may modify not only a verb, an ad- 
jective, or an adverb, but also an infinitive, a participle, 
a preposition, a phrase, a clause, or even an entire sen- 
tence, as we have seen in § 546. 

553. Parsing Adverbs. To parse an adverb we have 
only to tell (1) its kind, and (2) ivhat it modifies; the 
form (3) need be mentioned only when comparative or 
superlative. 

I t r + -, 

Example. We work [more cheerfully] I [when] we are [well] paid J. 



268 



more is a simple adverb in the comparative degree ; used to modify the 

adverb cheerfully. 
cheerfully is a simple adverb modifying the verb ■work, 
when is a conjunctive adverb modifying the verb are paid. 



554. 



SUMMABY: ADVERBS. 



Kinds. 


Forms. 


Uses. 


Simple 


Positive 


Modifies the 


Conjunctive 


Comparative 


Verb, Fart., Inf. 


[Interrogative] 


Superlative 


Adjective — . 


[Modal] 




Adverb — . 
Preposition, etc. 



EXERCISE 320. 

Point out the adverbs, and show exactly what each modifies. 

1. Springing lightly into his saddle, he rode rapidly away. 2. It is 
lawful to do well on the sabbath day. o. They live just beyond the 
mill. 4. He sailed nearly round the world. 5. How quickly night 
comes on! 6. Do precisely as you are bidden. 7. The paths of glory 
lead but to the grave. 8. Assuredly he cannot be mistaken. U. Per- 
haps you will have no other opportunity. 10. The tunnel extends 
almost through the mountain. 



C. ERRORS IN THE USE OF ADVERBS. 

555. Adjective for Adverb, Never use an adjective 

where an adverb is required. Thus : — 

" He reads slow and distinct " is wrong. The adjectives li slow " 
and " distinct " should not be used to describe the manner of reading. 
The sentence should be "He reads slowly and distinctly." 

556. Adverb for Predicate-adjective. Never use an 
adverb in place of an adjective to complete a copulative vevb. 



ERRORS IN THE USE OF ADVERBS. 269 

"Miss "Ward looked beautifully " is wrong. " Looked " is a copulative verb, for the 
meaning is " She loas beautiful in appearance." We should therefore use a predicate- 
adjective, and say, "Miss Ward looked beautiful." 

557. Double Negatives. Use only one negative in mak- 
ing a denial. 

"He has never had nothing to do with it" should be "He has 
never had anything to do with it." The two negatives neutralize 
each other, and spoil the meaning of the sentence. 

(a) Never use such expressions as " I don't scarcely ever go," or 
" We do not hardly expect it," when the meaning is, " I scarcely ever 
go," or "I hardly expect it." 

(b) Such expressions as " We are not wmnindful of your kindness; "' 
" He is never wnwilling to learn " are right, and convey just the mean- 
ing intended. What is the meaning ? 

558. Adverbial expressions should be so placed in the 
sentence as to convey just the meaning intended. Compare — 

Only the address can be written on this side (nothing else). 
The address can only be written on this side (not printed). 
The address can be written on this side only (not on the other). 

EXERCISE 321. 

Point out the errors in these sentences, giving the rule 
violated : — 

1. A miser gives nothing to nobody. 2. I never hear from him 
scarcely. 3. How sweetly the music sounds ! 4. He was tolerable 
well-informed. 5. The princess looked beautifully. 6. We reached 
home safely and soundly. 7. Did not the young man appear awk- 
wardly ? 8. We shall not go this week, I don't think. 9. This water 
tastes strongly of sulphur. 10. The fruit looks well; but it tastes 
badly. 11. How strangely everything seems in this light! 12. Do 
you feel badly ? 

Say rather " Do you feel ill, tired, unhappy f " " Bad " is indefinite and ambiguous. 

13. The children were very pleased with their presents. He was 
too confused to speak. 

Very and too should never be used to modify a participle. 



CHAPTER XX. 

PREPOSITIONS. 
[Review pages 113-118.] 

559. Prepositions are comparatively few in number; 
and, though they do not themselves modify other words, 
they are necessary to show hoiv different ideas are related 
to each other. They help to make phrases that modify 
like adjectives and adverbs. 

560. The object of a preposition may be, — 

1. A Noun : The farmers are at ivork in the field. 
or some expression equivalent to a noun ; as, — 

2. A Pronoun : I went from you to her. 

3. An Infinitive : Thank him for doing the errand. 

4. A Phrase : The Indians fired from behind the trees. 

5. A Clause : I am surprised at what you say. 

(a) The object sometimes precedes the preposition, espe- 
cially in poetry. Thus : — 

The heavy night hung dark the hills and waters o'er. 

Uses of Prepositional Phrases. 

561. A prepositional phrase may be used like an adjec- 
tive — 

(1) To modify a noun or a pronoun ; as in — 

There is no hope of rescue. Which of you will go ? 
or (2) As a subjective complement; as in — 



PHRASE-PREPOSITIONS. 271 

Your friend is in good spirits. They are of great service, 
(a) When used as an adjective, it may be called an adjective phrase, 

562. A prepositional phrase may be used like an adverb 
to modify — 

1. A Verb : Go in haste | to the town | for the doctor. 

2. An Infinitive : To waste in youth is to want in age. 

3. A Participle : Bees coming to hives laden "with honey. 

4. An Adjective : The narrative is full of interest. 

5. An Adverb : She did well for a beginner. 

(a) When used as an adverb, it may be called an adverb-phrase. 

563. A prepositional phrase may be used like a noun, 
as subject, object, etc., — especially after from. Thus : — 

They came from across the seas. 

Out of sight is out of mind. 



EXERCISE 322. 

Point out the prepositional phrases in Exercise 333, and tell 
whether they are used as adjectives or as adverbs. 

564. Phrase-prepositions. Some little phrases are so 

much like single prepositions in their use, that, instead 

of separating them, we may call them phrase-preiiositions. 

Thus: — 

from \ In \ 

It crawled out of > a hole. As to > color, this is perfect. 
from out) As for) 

The following are some of the phrases most commonly used as 
prepositions : — 

According to; as to; as for ; along with; instead of; out of; in spite 
of; in front of; by means of; on board; etc. 

565. Prepositions as Adverbs or Conjunctions. Most 
of the prepositions were once adverbs, and are often used as such. 
Thus: — 



272 im: impositions. 

It isn't worth talking about. How was it disposed of? 
Sometimes they become conjunctions [§ 570]. Thus : — 
Stay till I come. We started before the moon rose. 

566. Parsing- Prepositions. A preposition is parsed 
(1) by stating that it is a preposition, and (2) by showing 
how it is used. 

These forms may be followed : — 

[In his garden] grew flowers (of every line). 

in is a preposition, used with its object garden to make a phrase that 
modifies grew. 

of is a preposition, used with its object hue to make a phrase modify- 
ing flowers. 

EXERCISE 323. 

1. Parse the prepositions in the following sentences. 

2. What words are here adverbs that are often prepositions? 

1. From peak to peak the rattling crags among leaps the live 
thunder. 2. This is the house that he lives in. 3. Come on; let us 
go in. 4. Will you stay till after dinner? 5. These jewels came 
from across the sea. 6. As to that, men differ in opinion. 7. He ran 
from under the tree. 8. All excepting him have gone. 0. But one 
remains. 10. All but one have gone. 11. There is nothing to be 
done now but to retreat. 12. Quit yourselves like men. 13. Look 
the whole world over, and } T on will not find it. 14. Judging from 
what he says, I believe him honest. 

3. Parse the prepositions in any of the Exercises in this book. 

567. Errors in the use of Prepositions. Care must be 
taken to use appropriate prepositions. Tims : — 

Between refers to two objects : Divide the money between the two 

claimants. 
Among refers to more than two objects: Divide the money among the 

crew. 



CHOICE OF PREPOSITIONS. 273 

Into and to follow verbs of motion; in and at verbs of rest: Go into 
the house and remain in it. He is at home. 

Say "I met him in the street," "in the car," "in the train," "in a 
steamboat," rather than "on the street," etc. 

Say " different from," not " different to " nor " different than " ; as, 
"Mine is different from yours." 

568. Do not use prepositions needlessly nor omit them 
when they are required. Thus : — 

I do not wish for your services. Omit for. 
The book is no use to me. Say " of no use." 

EXERCISE 324. 
1. Fill the blank with a suitable preposition if one is needed. 

1. This work is different any that have appeared. 2. When 

shall you be home? 3. I should have gone if I had been 

able . 4. Do smell these flowers. 5. The signing that 

note was a mistake. 6. Let us go the park. 7. His answer 

was very different yours. 8. I could prevail him to go. 

9. Try to profit the failures of others. 10. There is constant 

rivalry the four roads. 11. He differed his friends. 

12. We arrived a late train, and stayed the hotel till 

morning. 13. what street do you live? 14. Virtue and vice 

differ widely each other. 15. How do you reconcile such 

actions what he said? 16. First become reconciled thy 

brother. 17. Is he worthy your confidence ? 18. He plays 

the organ very skilfully. 19. It is no use to try. 

2. Point out the errors in these sentences : — 

1. Do you intend to sing or no? 2. Most all men are ambitious. 
Never use most when you mean almost. 

3. I never liked neither him nor his opinions. 4. You are too 
frightened to be of any use. 5. Three of the crew only reached the 
shore. 6. He desired to be rich very much. 7. I shall be glad to 
see you always. 8. There only was a solitary fort where Chicago 
stands fifty years ago. 9. Deaf mutes can only talk with their hands 
or lips or eyes. 10. Leave more space between each column. 11. "A 
preposition is a bad word to end a sentence with." [§ 97.] 



CHAPTER XXI. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 
[Review pages 119-122.] 

569. Since we first defined conjunctions (§ 191) we 
have studied several other kinds of connective words : — 

(1) The conjunctive pronouns who, which, that, what, etc., which, 
while they connect, also do the work of nouns and pronouns ; 

(2) The conjunctive adverbs when, where, while, etc., which, be- 
sides connecting, always modify; and — 

(3) The prepositions, which show the relation between words. 

We now come to genuine Conjunct ions, the chief use 
of which is to connect the parts of compound and complex 
sentences. 



KINDS. 

570. Conjunctions are divided according to their use 
into two classes: (1) co-ordinating conjunctions, that 
connect the parts of a sentence so that they remain alike 
in rank or construction ; and (2) subordinating conjunc- 
tions, that make one of the connected parts dependent 
upon or a part of the other. 

" Co-ordinate " means of equal rank; " subordinate," of inferior rank. 

571. I. Co-ordinating conjunctions are used to con- 
nect (1) The members of a compound sentence. Thus: — 

The floods came, and the winds blew, but it fell not. 
We must overcome evil, or it will overcome us. 



COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. 275 

(2) Words, phrases, and clauses having the same con- 
struction. Thus : — 

Bright and happy children were running or playing there. 
True friends are the same in prosperity and in adversity. 
I do not know when he came nor whither he went. 
(a) Co-ordinating conjunctions are sometimes used at the begin- 
ning of a separate sentence to connect it in meaning with what 
precedes. 

572. We give the name co-ordinating conjunctions 
first to and, but, or, nor, which do nothing but connect ; 
secondly, to certain words which, though they retain their 
adverbial meaning, serve principally to show the connec- 
tion between the members of a compound sentence. 
Thus: — 

I do not believe in the change ; however, I shall not oppose it. 
(a) Therefore, hence, still, besides, consequently, yet, likewise, moreover, 
else, then, also, accordingly, nevertheless, notwithstanding, etc., are words of 
this kind. Try to form sentences beginning with them, and you will 
see that they refer to what has been said before in each case. 

573. A Co-ordinating conjunction is one that joins sen- 
tences or parts of sentences having the same rank. 

574. We can if we wish divide all co-ordinating conjunctions 
into four classes: — 

1. Copulative, or such as merely join together, like and. 

2. Alternative, or such as offer a choice between two, like or. 

3. Adversative, or such as imply that one part is opposed to the other, 

like but. 

4. Causal, or such as assign a cause, a reason, a result, etc., like for. 

575. Correlatives. Some conjunctions, called correla- 
tives, are used in pairs, one before each of the connected 
parts to make their connection more evident. Thus : — 

I have both seen and heard the orator. 

They are to meet us either in Paris or in London. 



276 CONJUNCTIONS. 

Give me neither poverty nor riches. 
Whether to go or to return is the question. 

Note. The first word of each pair may be parsed as an auxiliary or assistant con- 
junction helping the other to do the connecting. 



EXERCISE 325. 

Point out the conjunctions, and explain what each connects. 

1. He is liberal, but he is not generous. 2. They are poor, yet they 
are not needy. 3. Both he and I are going. 4. I believed ; therefore 
have I spoken. 5. That route is dangerous : besides we have no guide. 
6. The book is not perfect: still it is very helpful. 7. Either Ham- 
let was insane, or he feigned insanity. 8. The sea is rough, for I 
hear the surf. 9. He yields neither to force nor to persuasion. 

10. The fault is neither yours nor mine, but theirs. 11. I have 
had experience both in sickness and in health. 12. But I can never 
be natural enough, even when there is the most occasion. 13. As to 
the book you mention, I am in doubt whether to read it or not. 
14. We cannot go, nor should you. 15. He is a genius, though he 
does not seem so. 

576. Punctuation. Rule. — When the members of a 
compound sentence are long, or much like separate sen- 
tences, the semicolon or the colon must be used between 
them instead of the comma. [See § 189.] 

577. Subordinating Conjunctions. If we unite the 

sentences, — 

Rain has fallen. The grass is wet, 

by the co-ordinating conjunction " and " ; thus, — 
Rain has fallen, and the grass is wet, 

we make a compound sentence with co-ordinate members ; 

that is, with members of equal rank. But if we unite 

them by the conjunction " because " ; thus, — 

The grass is wet, because rain has fallen, 

we change their relation and rank, and make one of them 



SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. 277 

an adverb-clause that gives a reason for the other, by tell- 
ing ivhy the grass is wet. 
So too in the sentences, — 

It will dry after the sun has risen. (When ?) 
We must hasten, that we may meet our friends. (Why?) 
We shall wait if they have not come. (On what condition ?) 
the conjunctions after, that, if, change what might be independent 
sentences into adverb-clauses that modify verbs by showing when, 
why, on what condition, etc. 

578. Conjunctions of this kind connect two sentences 
by changing one of them into a clause which becomes part 
of the other, and they are therefore called subordinating-. 

579. Most subordinating conjunctions are used to make 
adverb-clauses, which may modify in a variety of ways. 
Thus, they may denote : — 

1. Time: We waited after \ U f ore > since > I you came. 

( till, until, ere, ) 

2. Cause or Reason : I will go because ] J 07 '' smce > as > I y 0U as h it. 

( inasmuch as, > 

3. Manner : Work as if (as though) you ivere paid. 

4. Comparison : J The ni §' hts are longer than the days [are]. 

( Venus is more distant than the moon [is]. 



Condition, C I will go if \ unless I he needs me. 

_. . ■< ( provided ) 

Concession, etc. : J . 

[^ Though (although) he is poor he is content. 



6. Purpose or Result : J Take ? ood care that ( les 
( Exercise daily, that you nu 



escape. 
Exercise daily, that you may grow strong. 



580. The subordinating conjunction that (and some- 
times whether) is often used in making a noun-clause. 
Thus the sentences — 

He was wrong. We knew that fact, 



278 CONJUNCTIONS, 

when united by that become — 

We knew that he was wrong. 

So — 

Ask whether the steamer has sailed. 

581. A Subordinating conjunction is one that changes an 
assertion into a clause, and connects it to the rest of the sentence. 

582. Phrase-conjunctions. Some little phrases are used to con- 
nect like single words. For example : — 

Corn as well as wheat may be raised here. 
I shall go inasmuch as he has invited me. 
The most common phrase-conjunctions are as if, as though, as well 
as, forasmuch as, provided that, seeing that, so that, in order that, etc. 

583. Parsing Conjunctions. In parsing a conjunction 
we are to tell (1) its hind, and (2) what it connects. The 
following forms may be used : — 



1. He spoke and acted [as if (his) life were in danger]. 

and is a co-ordinating conjunction, and connects the two verbs spoke 
and acted. 

as if is a subordinating phrase-conjunction, and connects the adverb- 
clause to spoke and acted, which it modifies. 

+ + ^ 

2. [After we had sailed] we found that (the) ship leaked. 

after is a subordinating conjunction, and connects the adverb-clause 

to found, which it modifies. 
that is a subordinating conjunction, and joins the noun-clause to 

found, of which it is the object. 

584. Adverb-phrases or adverb-clauses that precede the 
words which they modify are generally set off by commas. 

Thus : — 

When the sun had set. we returned to our homes. 
The sun having set. they resumed their journey. 
Shortly after sunset, the storm abated. 



FORMS FOR PARSING. 279 

585. Punctuation, Rule. — Adverb-modifiers must gen- 
erally be set off by commas unless they are very short or 
immediately follow the word that they modify. 



586. SUMMARY: FORMS FOR PARSING. 



f Co-ordinating 
Kinds. is a j Subordinating 



■ Conjunction ; 



Correlative 

f words and , 

Ti ; ', , phrases and 

It connects the co-ordinate A , 

clauses and 

Uses. ■{ -L j 

I members and — 

It connects the adverb- (or noun-) clause to . 

It helps to connect and . 



EXERCISE 326. 

1. Parse the prepositions in the following sentences. 

2. Analyze the sentences, and parse the conjunctions. 

1. Though I admire his courage, I detest his cruelty. 2. Remain 
until sunset. 3. Do not go until the sun has set. 4. Think twice 
before you speak. 5. I have not seen my friend since he returned 
from Dublin. 6. If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. 7. I 
am proud that I am an American. 8. We know that the moon is 
uninhabited. 9. That the moon is uninhabited is well known. 

10. The fact that the moon is uninhabited is well known. 11. It is 
well known that the moon is not inhabited. 12. The fact is that the 
moon has no inhabitants. 13. As Caesar loved me, I weep for him. 
14. Come down ere my child die. 15. It is more than heart can bear. 
16. Language was given us that we might say pleasant things to each 
other. 17. If spring is without blossoms, autumn will be without 
fruit. 18. It was so cold that the mercury froze. 19. He failed in 
business because he was dishonest. 



280 CONJUNCTIONS. 

587. Errors in the Use of Conjunctions. Observe 

these rules : — 

1. Do not 2(se or for nor as the correlative of neither. 
" Neither you or I " should be " Neither you nor I." 

2. Do not use like instead of as or as if. 

He acted like (as if) he was crazy. Sing like (as) I do. 

3. Do not use but for than after other or any compara- 
tive ivord. 

I have no other friend but (than) 3-011 ; or, I have no friend but you. 

4. Do not use but what for that or but that, 

I have no doubt but ichat (that) he did it. 

5. Do not use if when you mean whether. 

See if (whether) he can go. 

EXERCISE 327. 
1. Supply an appropriate conjunction. 

1. I have no other reason this. 2. I did not know but 

you were busy. 3. He will neither come in go out. 1. Is 

there no one else he to go? 5. He no sooner sees me, 

he runs to meet me. 6. He walked he was lame. 7. He did 

not deny but he owed the money. 8. I can't say he will 

be here or not. 

2. Try to answer the following questions : — 

1. What may the object of a preposition be? 2. Give examples. 
3. What parts of speech may the phrase resemble? 4. Use one as ad- 
jective, as complement, as adverb. 5. Explain the difference between 
prepositions and conjunctions. C. Between the two kinds of conjunc- 
tions. 7. Discriminate between the italicized words in " after sunset," 
and " after the sun had set " ; in " I have not seen him since noon," 
and "Since it is true, he must go." 8. In "Act as you feel"; "As I 
looked, it fell"; "She is not so tall as you," as is a conjunctive ad- 
verb. In "As life is short, improve it," as is a conjunction; and in 
" This is such as I want," as is a pronoun. Try to explain why. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

INTERJECTIONS, Etc. 

588. We call interjections one of the parts of speech because they 
are spoken and written as words ; but they cannot enter into the con- 
struction of sentences, being only "thrown in between" them. 

They are half-way between ordinary language and the language 
of coughing, laughing, crying, and so on, which they are made to 
imitate. 

589. Among commonly-written interjections are in- 
cluded — 

I. Words used instead of an assertion to express feeling 
of various kinds : — 

(a) Surprise or wonder ; as, oh, ah, lo, whew. 

(h) Pleasure, joy, exultation ; as, oh, ah, aha, hey, hurrah. 

(c) Pain, sadness, sorrow ; as, oh, ah, alas, alack, lack-a-day. 

(d) Contempt, disgust; as, pshaw, fie, fudge, pooh, ugh, bah. 

II. Words used instead of a question ; as, eh? ah? hey? 

III. Words used instead of a command : — 

(a) To call attention; as, O, lo, ho, hem, hollo, ahoy. 

(b) To silence ; as, hist, hush, whist, 'st, mum. 

(c) To direct, expel, and so on ; as, whoa, gee, haw, scat. 

IV. Words used to imitate sounds made by animals, 
machines, and so on. As, — 

bow-wow, ba-a-a, pop, bang, ding-dong, rub-a-dub, whiz, 
whir-r, patter. 
Notice the sound of such verbs and nouns as grunt, buzz, roar, 
crash, hiss, puff. 



282 INTERJECTIONS. 

Other Exclamatory Words. 

590. Many ordinary words and phrases are often used 
independently as mere exclamations, when their real mean- 
ing is hardly thought of. So with — 

(1) Nouns and pronouns : fire, nonsense, mercy, shame, what. 

(2) Verbs : help, behold, look, see, begone, hark, listen. 

(3) Adjectives: hail, well, welcome, strange, good, bravo. 

(4) Adverbs, prepositions, and phrases: out, indeed, how, why, 
back, forward ; on, up J" amen, O dear, dear me, farewell, adieu, 
good-by, good-day. 

591. When such an expression, even though used alone, 
retains its original meaning, we may supply what is omit- 
ted, and treat the word as part of a sentence. Thus : — 

Silence ! (keep silence !) Good ! (that is good !) 

592. Sometimes, as when greatly excited, we abandon sentences 
altogether, and utter only the most important words ; as, — 

A sail ! a sail ! Now for the boats ! Down with it ! 
Steady ! Lower ! To your oars, men ! 

593. Punctuation. Rule. — Every interjection but 
must be followed by an exclamation point when used in a 
very exclamatory way. 

EXERCISE 328. 

1. Write sentences, using each of these words in the right way: — 
O! ahoy! alas! what! ho! Oh! eh! pshaw! hark! sh ! 

2. Give five or ten words used to imitate different animals. 

3. What animals do you think the following are made to imitate? 

tu-whit, tu-whoo ; whir-r ; buzz ; chick-a-dee ; 
whip-poor-will; twitter; chirp; bellow; whinny. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 1 
[Review §§ 453-463.] 

I. INFINITIVES. 

594. Infinitives are in their nature partly nouns. First, 
being names (of actions, etc.), they are nouns, and they 
have the uses of nouns. Secondly, though they cannot 
assert, they are like verbs in meaning and they take the 
same modifiers or complements. Thus in — 

I wish to drive my horse slowly, 
to drive, like a noun, is the object of " wish," and, like a verb, it ex- 
presses action, has an object, " horse," and is modified by an adverb, 
" slowly." 

A. KINDS OR FORMS. 

595. Nearly every verb has two simple infinitives ; as, — 

(to) drive, driving ; (to) run, running ; 
named from their forms the Root-infinitive and the In- 
finitive in ing. 

596. As verb-phrases are used instead of inflected 
forms, so too infinitive phrases are used instead of the 
simple forms to express certain changes of meaning. 

597. A full list of infinitive forms and phrases will be found on 
page 249. Study it and give appropriate names to the following : — 

To sing ; to be lost ; to have given ; having found ; printing ; to 
have been writing; to be giving; to be given; being obeyed. 

1 See Our Language, Chapter xv. 



284 INFINITIVES. 

B. USES, OR CONSTRUCTIONS. 

598. Either infinitive may be used as 1. Subject, 2. Sub- 
jective Complement, or 3. Object of a verb. Thus : — 

Making (promises) is [not] keeping (them). 

To have given (freely) is to be asked (for more). 

She prefers sitting (quietly). She prefers to sit (quietly). 

(a) An infinitive may be used as the real subject of a verb to ex- 
plain the anticipative subject it (§ 363); as, — 

n 

It is dangerous (to trifle with-temptation). 

(b) In these constructions the infinitive in ing may generally be substituted for the 
root-infinitive, and vice versa. 

599. 4. The infinitive in ing may be the Object of a 

preposition. Thus : — 

$ I 

We are weary (with watching those men). 



(Of making many books) there is (no) end. 
! * ~ ~~ • 

(a) The root-infinitive is now used only after the prepositions about and but ; 
as in — 

I am about to go. They could do nothing (but fight). 



EXERCISE 329. 
Analyze these sentences, and parse the infinitives. [§ 604.] 
1. To be good is to be happy. 2. It is impossible not to grow old. 
3. Reading by twilight may injure the sight. 4. It is always best to 
tell the truth. 5. It was discouraging not to have been kindly 
received. 6. Seeming good is not being good. 7. Who would wish 
to be forgotten ? 8. They refused to release the prisoner. 9. I have 
tried to do justice to everybody. 10. He dislikes being falsely accused. 
11. The firm expects to be moving out to-morrow. 12. Do you regret 
having done no more? 13. We can improve by imitating good ex- 
amples. 14. They know nothing about its having been written. 
15. The dog did everything but speak to him. 



USES, OR CONSTRUCTIONS. 285 

600. 5. The root-infinitive with to may be used 
Adjectively like a prepositional phrase. Thus : — 

Wood to burn (for burning) . Horses to let (for letting) . 
(The) question (to be decided) is (very) difficult. 

(a) It is also often used as a predicate adjective ; as in, — 
Such conduct is to be despised (is despicable). 
He appears to have lost his mind (appears insane). 

601. 6. The root-infinitive with to, like a preposi- 
tional phrase, may be used Adverbially to modify the 
meaning of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, by showing 
the purpose, cause, respect in which, etc. Thus : — 

We need the money to pay (for paying) the help. 
They are slow to depart (in departing) . 
It is ripe enough to eat (for eating). 

Note. When used adjectively or adverbially the root-infinitive may generally be 
replaced by for {in, at, of, etc.) and the infinitive in ing. As in, — 

good to drink {for drinking) ; forced to go {into going) ; 
regret to hear {at hearing) ; failed to come {of coming) . 

602. 7. The root-infinitive is often used along with 
the object of a verb as the Indirect Predicate of it, the 

object and the infinitive being nearly equivalent to an 
objective noun-clause. Thus : — 

We believed it to be true = We believed that it was true. 
I expected him to come = I expected that he would come. 
' Note. This construction is most common after verbs meaning think, perceive, 
declare, command, permit, and the like, taking the place of an indirect quotation. 
But the infinitive after these verbs may sometimes be explained in other ways. 

In "I believed him to be a liar," "him," though made objective because it follows 
"believed," is not meant to be separated from the following phrase. 

603. After bid, let, make, see, hear, feel, and have an infinitive 
is used as indirect predicate without to. As in, — 

W f It i ^ ie nouse snake - Hear the bells ring. 

( that the house shook. See her play tennis. 

{a) Need and dare sometimes take an object infinitive without to. As in, — 

He need not go. I dare not jump, Need they return at once ? 



286 IN FIN IT I YKS. 

004. SUMMARY: FORMS FOB PARSING. 

Forms or Kinds. 



of f Com. ] 

}■ Infinitive ; (or from) \ Tran. [ Verb <{ 
(root- or in the j Cop. 



Simple 

G . , ( Pro. 
Simple - 

( Pass. 

Perfect 

Per£ect {p™J 

Constructions. 

1. Subject of the verb . 

(a) Explanatory of the antieipative subject it. 

2. Subjective complement of the verb . 

3. Object of the verl> . 

4. Object of the -preposition . 

. pr , ,. , < to modify the noun . 

• >. I seel adjectively J 

( as subjective complement ol the verb . 

f verb . 

6. Used adverbially to modify the adjective . 

I adverb . 

7. Used as indirect predicate of the object . 

EXERCISE 330. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the infinitives. Sug- 
gest an equivalent phrase or clause when possible. 

1. Have you time to hear my statement? 2. The company was 
to receive a thousand pounds. 3. Leaves have their time to fall. 
1. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast. 5. The Indians 
seem to be fading from the land. 6. I called immediately to see him. 
7. My friends were delighted to receive the gifts. 8. She is too 
sensible to be flattered. 9. They are well able to bear the loss. 
10. Be swift to hear, anel slow to speak. 11. I expected him to go at 
once. 12. No one believed him to be so cruel. 13. We held it to be 



ERRORS IN THE USE OF INFINITIVES. 287 

an outrage. 14. I suppose it to have been him. 15. We have ordered 
the house to be vacated immediately. 15. They made the welkin 
ring with their hurrahs. 



C. ERRORS IN THE USE OF INFINITIVES. 

605. A modifier must not be used between to and the rest 
of the infinitive. 

Say "They meant never to return" not "They meant to never 
return." 

606. Avoid using to alone in place of an infinitive. 

Say " He has broken his word and is likely to break it again,'* 

not " and is likely to again." 

" Do as I told }^ou," not " Do as I told you to" 

607. Avoid the use of " and "for to. 

Say " Come to see me," not " Come and see me "; " Try to do your 
best," not " Try and do your best." 

608. Do not use a perfect infinitive after a past tense 
when the simple form would express the meaning. 

Say "I intended to go" not " to have gone." 

"We hoped to be present," not "to have been present." 

EXERCISE 331. 

Point out the error in each of these sentences, and tell what rule 
is violated : — 

1. We ought to carefully avoid errors. 

2. I have done everything that you told me to. 

3. We shall try and call upon you next week. 

4. He was not obliged to have gone with me. 

5. I ought to at least apologize, but I do not mean to. 



288 PARTICIPLES. 



II. PARTICIPLES. 



609. Participles are in part adjectives, for they modify 
nouns and pronouns ; and they are in part verbs, for they 
take the same modifiers or complements. They do not 
assert that a thing does or is so and so, but they describe 
it so as to imply as much. Thus, in the sentence — 

I met a man driving his sheep to market, 
driving, like an adjective, modifies "man," and. like a verb, takes an 
object, "sheep." It describes the man as acting without asserting 
anything of him. 



A. KINDS OB FORMS. 

610. Nearly every verb has two simple participles 
named from their meaning — 

(1) The Present, Imperfect, or Active participle ; as. — 
driving, spinning, seeing, walking, sleeping ; and — 

(2) The Past, Perfect, or Passive participle ; as, — 

driven, spun, seen, walked, slept. 

611. In place of inflected forms we have four partici- 
ple-phrases, — one formed with the imperfect participle, 
and three with the perfect. 

Participle-forms and phrases may be found on page 240. 

612. The Present participle always ends in iiig". It 
commonly represents an action or a condition as continu- 
ing or imperfect, and it is almost always active ; that is, it 
refers to the actor. Thus : — 

Vessels carrying coal are constantly arriving. 

613. The Past participle commonly ends in en, ed, d, 

or t (§ 461), and is generally perfect, representing an 



USES, OR CONSTRUCTIONS. 289 

action or a condition as completed. When used alone 
it is almost always passive; that is, it refers, not to the 
actor, but to what is acted upon. Thus : — 

The army, beaten but not vanquished, slowly fell back. 



B. USES, OR CONSTRUCTIONS. 

614. I. The simple participles may be used as Sub- 
jective Complements. Thus : — 

The flowers are gone. It seems bewildering. Night came steal- 
ing on. The place lay deserted for years. 

(«) Used in this way, the participle often has some adverbial meaning, as in the last 
two examples. 

(6) A participle may he used as an objective complement. Thus : — 

Send the ball rolling. We shall keep you occupied. 

615. II. Any participle may be added to a noun or a 
pronoun appositively. In such cases the idea would be 
more fully expressed, — 

(1) By an adjective-clause ; (2) By an adverb-clause; (3) By an 
independent statement; as, — 

1. The books { bought for the librar y . I are burned. 

(. that were bought for the library ) 

2. The dog went home \ having lost Ms mast ? r ' 

( because he had lost his master. 

3 ( Reaching for the bell-rope, ) j ned y. vigorously . 
( I reached for the bell-rope, and ) 

616. III. Any participle may be used with a noun or a 
pronoun in the Absolute construction (§ 812), the two 
together having the force of an adverb-clause. Thus : — 

[Quiet having been restored], (the) speaker continued. 

617. Punctuation. Rule. — Participle -phrase* must 

generally he set off by commas unless used restrictively. 



290 PARTICIPLES. 

618. SUMMARY: FORMS FOR PARSING. 

Kinds or Forms. 



Imperfect 

Present Perf. !■ (Active) 

Progressive J 

Perfect ] 

Present Perf. \ (Passive) 



of f Corn. 

Part.; (or from) -j Tran. [• Verb - 

the I Cop. 



Progressive 

Constructions. 

1. Modifies the noun (or pronoun) . 

2. Complement of the verb referring to . 

3. Used absolutely with the noun (or pronoun) . 

EXERCISE 332. 

Analyze these sentences, and parse the participles. Change each 
participle-phrase to a clause when possible. 

1. The melancholy days are come. 2. I kept him working. 3. This 
noise is very confusing. 4. The mountain streams went babbling by. 
5. Is not the breeze from the hills refreshing? 6. The fire was set 
burning by sparks from the engine. 7. The news set all the bells 
ringing. 8. We found some old planks badly rotted by the weather. 
9. The sun goes down, lengthening the shadows. 10. What wonder 
is it that the girl, lost in such dreamy fancies, did not hear you. 

11. Even the special train despatched at two did not arrive till four. 

12. Having often seen him passing, I reasoned that the nest was 
near. 13. She brought some images stolen from the tombs by Arabs. 

14. Once possessed of that fortune, he would wish it to be greater. 

15. Punished or unpunished, he will never be conquered. 16. Ten 
times conquered, still you may be victor. 17. The rain having ceased 
to fall, we look for a rainbow. 18. The weather permitting, we shall 
set out to-morrow. 19. And the rocks now slipping from beneath 
their feet, they still refused to flee. 20. He had everything to fear 
from poisonous plants, the very sight of dogwood being dangerous. 
21. She sat by the windows the sash raised, and the wind blowing a 
gale. 22. The army was in Belgium, the fleet being in the Channel, 
as we have said. 



291 



EXERCISE 333. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the participles and 
infinitives. Expand participle-phrases to clauses, and tell how the 
clauses affect the meaning of the main statement. 

1. Strive to keep your appointments. 2. I have but a few more 
words to say. 3. Cease to do evil ; learn to do well. 4. The mere 
fact of his father's paying the debt is no proof of its being a proper 
expenditure. 5. It was no easy task to bridge the chasm. 6. To 
profess and to possess are very different. 7. Evil falls on him who 
goes to seek it. 8. Gone are the birds that were our summer guests. 

9. His great work having been well done, he rests at last. 10. He 
that is good at making excuses is seldom good for anything else. Let 
him learn the luxury of doing good. 11. Let us prevent his anger by 
sacrificing ourselves. 12. The law is made to protect the innocent by 
punishing the guilty. 13. By observing truth we shall secure the 
respect of others. 14. He saw a star fall from heaven and vanish in 
utter darkness. 15. It is well to think well ; it is divine to act well. 

16. England owes her liberties to her having been conquered by the 
Xorman. 17. Eyes raised towards heaven are always beautiful, what- 
ever they be. 18. Selfishness is making one's self the most important 
personage in the world. Happiness shared is perfected. 19. Silently 
to persevere in one's duty is the best answer to calumny. 20. You 
find yourself refreshed by the presence of cheerful people. Why not 
make an earnest effort to confer that pleasure on others ? 

21. Freedom's battle, once begun, 
Bequeathed from bleeding sire to son 
Though baffled oft, is ever won. 

22. Rest is not quitting the busy career ; 
Rest is the fitting of self to its sphere. 

'Tis loving and serving the highest and best ; 
'Tis onwards ! unswerving, and that is true rest. 

23. To be graduated with a college diploma without having entered 
into the true spirit of college life by bearing an active part in its 
manifold and stimulating experiences, is to have failed of securing 
the best results of the course. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

PHRASES, CLAUSES, AND COMBINED SENTENCES. 

REVIEW EXERCISE 334. 

1. What are sentences? (§ 109.) 2. How are they divided with 
regard to kind ? (§§113-117.) 3. How with regard to form ? (§§187, 

188, 365, 366.) 4. Define each kind. 5. What is a phrase? (§ 154.) 
6. Name and define several kinds of phrases. (§§ 181, 224, 238, 
561(a), 562(a).) 7. What is a clause? (§333.) 8. Xame and 
define the kinds of clauses. (§§ 334, 342, 542.) 9. Xame the modi- 
fiers of nouns and pronouns. (§§ 241, 334, 600, 609.) 10. Xame the 
modifiers of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. (§§ 214 (6), 241, 550, 601, 
614 (a).) 

619. The Base of a Sentence. The simple predicate 
is always a verb or verb-phrase. The subject, object, or 
subjective complement may be — 

1. A Noun : Napoleon overthrew the government , and became 
Emperor. 

2. A Pronoun : They released us. Debtors are those in debt. 

3. An Adjective [as Subjective Complement only] : They are silent. 

f Out of sight is out of mind. 

To be absent is to be forgotten. 
4 A Phrase • ■ • . . . 

His keeping busy prevented his being homesick. 

[ They will be in search of work. 

( What I learn cannot be taken from me. 

5. A Noun-clause : -j AVe know that life is uncertain. 

I The fact is that he is totally blind. 
f "J still live " was the last that he said. 

6. A Quotation : \ His dying words were, "Don't give up the ship." 

[ Galileo exclaimed, "It does more.'''' 

(a) The subject in imperative sentences is generally 
omitted. You, thou, or ye may be supplied in analyzing. 



COMPOUND ELEMENTS. 293 

620. Modifiers. Besides the modifiers named in § 241, 

1. A noun or a pronoun may be modified by — 

1 A Participle \ word : They found him wounded and dying. 

\ phrase : Some frail memorial, still erected nigh. 

2. An Infinitive-phrase : A plan to light the streets cheaply. 

3. An Adjective clause : Those that think govern those that toil. 

4. An Appositive Noun-clause : Prove the fact \ that it is so. 

5. An Explanatory Noun-clause : It is true that air has weight. 

621. II. A verb, infinitive, participle, adjective, or ad- 
verb may be modified by — 

1. A Noun or Noun-phrase : Stay a month. 

2. An Infinitive-phrase: i We came to demand our ri 9 Us ' 

( The land is pleasant to live in. 

3. An Adverb-clause : Stand icherever you like. 

622. Compound Elements. Any element in a sen- 
tence, whether a part of the base or a modifier, may be 
compounded of two or more simple elements usually 
joined by conjunctions. Thus : — 

In Him we live and move. He is both wise and good. 
Speak firmly but kindly. Learn who he is and where he is. 

EXERCISE 335. 

Analyze these sentences, and show which elements of each sen- 
tence are compound : — 

1. There health and plenty cheered the laboring swain. 2. Regular 
and daily exercise was the origin and secret of his health. 3. Gayly 
rode the hunters through the valleys or over the hills, 4. Love for 
study, a desire to do right, and care hi the choice of friends were 
traits of his character. 5. We were deeply impressed by the majesty 
and sublimity of the cataract and its surroundings. 6. Which would 
they choose, to live at peace with none, or to die at peace with all ? 

7. Either sooner or later temperance fortifies and purifies the heaii . 

8. Make the house where gods may dwell, beautiful, entire, and clean. 



294 



PHRASES, CLAUSES, ETC. 



II. <! 



623. Clauses, The different kinds of clauses must be 
carefully distinguished, and their connection with the rest 
of the sentence indicated clearly. The following forms 
may be used : — 

" is an Adjective clause modifying the noun or pro- 
noun) . 

\ 1. The relative pronoun who, which. 

** ] that, as. 

The clause-connective is { % The re}atiye ^^ ^^ ^n, 

^ [ whence, why, etc. 

is an Adverb-clause modifying the verb (adj. or adv.) 

by denoting time, place, cause, manner, comparison, 

condition, concession, purpose, etc. 

\ 1. The conj. adv. where, ichen, ivhile, 
ichence, as, etc. 
2. The sub. conj. till, before, after, if, 
for, because, as, than, that, etc. 

1. As subject of the verb . 

2. As object of the verb . 

3. As object of the prep. . 

-i. As subjective complement of . 

5. In apposition with the noun . 

6. To explain the anticipative subject 
(or object) it. 

1. The conj. pro. what, whatever, who- 
ever, etc. 

2. The conj. adv. how, why, wlxn. 
where, etc. 

3. The sub. conj. that or whether. 



The clause-connective is - 



is a 

Noun-clause ; 



used 



III. -> 



The clause-connective is 



624. In studying selections for analysis and parsing, 
observe the following directions : — 

1. Consult the dictionary for the meaning of unfamiliar words. 

2. Transpose the words into their common prose order, unless the 
construction seems clear to you. 



EXERCISES. 295 

3. ( Select the clauses and show how each is used. 

4. Classify the sentence and analyze each part of it. 

EXERCISE 336. 

1. Classify the clauses in these sentences, and show, according 
to the preceding forms, how each is used. 

2. Parse the clause-connectives. 

1. We acquire the strength that we overcome. 2. O Solitude! 
where are the charms that sages have seen in thy face? 3. Life is 
what we make it. 4. Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty. 
5. What pleases you will please me. 6. The fact is that he has 
betrayed my confidence. 7. He knew not that the chieftain lay 
unconscious of his son. 8. It is in vain that you seek to escape. 

9. While he slept the enemy came. 10. What he spake, though 
it lacked form a little, was not madness. 11. All that he does is to 
distribute what others produce. 12. He that fights and runs away 
may live to fight another day. 13. The best of what we do and are 
is poor enough. 1-4. I thank God that I never hated any man because 
he was poor or because he was ignorant. 15. A great many men, if 
put into the right position, would be Luthers or Columbuses. 16. No 
wonder you are deaf to all I say. 17. He whistled as he went, for 
want of thought. 18. [Nothing waxeth old sooner than a good turn 
or a favor. 19. When faith is lost, when honor dies, the man is dead. 
20. Be silent, or say something better than silence. 21. Patience is 
so like Fortitude, that she seems either her sister or her daughter. 

22. His misery was such that none of his friends could refrain 
from weeping. 23. What stronger breastplate than a heart untainted? 
24. Thrice is he armed who hath his quarrel just ; and he but naked, 
though locked up in steel, whose conscience with injustice is cor- 
rupted. 25. Still the wonder grew that one small head could carry 
all he knew. 26. When Strength and Justice are true yoke-fellows, 
where can be found a mightier pair than they? 27. You will gain a 
good reputation, if you endeavor to be what you desire to appear. 
28. He made it clear that the plan was impossible. 29. He felt as 
though himself were he on whose sole arm hung victory. 
30. Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see, 

Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be. 



296 PHRASES, CLAUSES, ETC. 

EXERCISE 337. 
Analyze the following sentences, classifying the clauses, and 
parsing the words : — 

I. To dare is great, but to bear is greater. 2. Write it on your 
heart that every day is the best day of the year. 3. Heaven is for 
those who think of it. 4. Live as though life were earnest, and life 
will be so. 5. Sweet it is to have done the thing one ought. 6. He 
that loveth makes his own the grandeur that he loves. 7. "Don't 
cross the bridge till you come to it " is a proverb old and of excellent 
wit. 8. There's nothing so contagious as pure openness of heart. 
9. Who does the best his circumstance allows, does well, acts nobly ; 
angels could do no more. 10. He is not worthy of the honeycomb 
that shuns the hives because the bees have stings. 

II. Find thou always time to say some earnest word between the 
idle talk. 12. Duties are ours, but events are God's. 13. Brooding 
all day will not arm a man against misery. 14. Nothing that is shall 
perish utterly. 15. There's nothing but what's bearable as long as a 
man can work. 16. It is better to fight for the good than to rail at 
the ill. 17. Love all, trust a few, do wrong to none. 18. Corn grow- 
ing, larks singing, garden full of flowers, fresh air on the sea — O, it 
is wonderful! 19. We always may be what we might have been. 
20. It isn't so much what a man has that makes him happy, as it is 
what he doesn't want. 

21. We are made happy by what we are, not by what we have. 

22. A man's reach should exceed his grasp, or what's heaven for? 

23. It's very easy finding reasons why other folks should be patient. 

24. Who laughs at crooked men needs walk very straight. 25. We 
are such stuff as dreams are made of, and our little life is rounded 
with a sleep. 26. He who neglects the present moment throws away 
all he has. 27. " One soweth and another reapeth " is a verity that 
applies to evil as well as good. 28. Rich gifts wax poor when givers 
prove unkind. 29. Said he, "All that I am, my mother made me." 
30. Since my country calls me, I obey. 31. The days are made on a 
loom whereof the warp and woof are past and future time. 32. Let 
me make the songs of a people, and I care not who makes the laws. 

33. Words pass as wind, but where great deeds were done 
A power abides, transfused from sire to son. 



EXERCISES. 



297 



625. Variety of Expression. [See pp. 65-75.] Among 
the many ways of varying our forms of expression are the 
following : — 



1. Passive forms may be used for active, and vice versa. 
Thus : — 



[§ 503.] 



1. All may make mistakes. 

2. The introductory there or 
Thus : — 

1. A messenger came. 

2. To retreat was impossible. 



| 1. Mistakes may be made by all. 
it may be used. [§§ 249, 363.] 

I 1. There came a messenger. 
| 2. It was impossible to retreat. 



3. Words may be expanded to phrases, and phrases to clauses. 
[§99.] Thus: — 



1. Japanese tea. 

2. The inventor of the telephone. 

3. Before sailing. 

4. The voyage having begun. 



1. Tea raised in Japan. 

2. He that invented the telephone. 

3. Before they had sailed. 

4. When the voyage had begun. 



4. Clauses may be contracted to phrases. Thus : — 



1. Gray, the author of the poem. 

2. Regions explored by Stanley. 

3. Having left Paris. 

4. I thought him worthy. 

5. Come before sunrise. 



1. Gray, who wrote the poem. 

2. Regions that Stanley explored. 

3. After we left Paris. 

4. I thought that he ivas worthy. 

5. Come before the sun has risen. 

5. Simple sentences may be combined into either compound or 
complex sentences. Thus: — 

1. The Americans were not contending for money. They were 
contending for a principle. They refused to receive the tea. 

1. The Americans were not contending for money, but for a prin- 
ciple, and they refused to receive the tea. (Compound.) Or — 

1. As the Americans were not contending for money, but for a 
principle, they refused to receive the tea. (Complex.) 

6. Negative may be used for affirmative assertions, and interroga- 
tive for assertive sentences. [§ 567 (&).] Thus : — 

1. Such pleasures attracted him. 1 1. Such pleasures were not un- 
attractive to him. 



298 PHRASES, CLAUSES, ETC. 

2. We have suffered enough. Let I 2. Have we not suffered enough? 
us defend our rights. Shall we not defend our rights? 

EXERCISE 338. 

1. Change the italicized expression in some one of the ways men- 
tioned in the preceding section without changing the meaning. 
Describe the change you have made. 

1. The author of the book is in Egypt. 2. The note is payable on 
demand. 3. He cancelled his liabilities. 4. I shall see you on my 
return. 5. They thought me honest. 6. I gave you the book that you 
might read it. 7. If you call you will see him. 8. Morning dawning, 
all fears were dispelled. 9. Intemperance ruins many a youth. 10. No 
place is like home. 11. It is by careful saving that men grow rich. 
12. Shame being lost, all is lost. 13. We did not know that our friend 
was ill. 14. The miser is unhappy. 15. Xo man is perfect. 16. As 
the king was dead, a dispute arose as to the succession. 17. The light 
struggles dimly through windows which are darkened by dust. 18. Many 
men who have made wonderful inventions have died poor. 19. After 
passing Congress the bill ivas signed by the President. 20. The treaty 
which Jay negotiated was approved by the Senate. 

2. Combine the following groups of simple sentences into com- 
pound or complex sentences. 

1. Sir Walter Raleigh received from Queen Elizabeth a charter. 
It gave him a large territory in America. He sent out an exploring 
expedition in 1584. 2. In 1607 three ships carried out a handful of 
people. They began the settlement of the United States. The Largesl 
one was named *• Susan Constant." 3. One of the most industrious 
men in the colony was John Smith. He was a young man. He had 
had many adventures. He was fond of boasting of them. 4. The 
English government sent tea to Boston. A company of fifty men 
threw it into the sea. The men had disguised themselves as 
Indians. 5. Paul Revere was an active patriot. The British had 
started for Lexington. He was sent to tell this to Adams and Han- 
cock. They were in that town. 6. Geoffrey Chaucer was the first 
great English poet. He was the author of the "Canterbury Tales." 
He was born in 13-10. He died in 1400. 



EXERCISES. 299 

Selections for Analysis and Parsing. 1 

1. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of, and memory is 
accumulated genius. 

2. Wise sayings often fall on barren ground ; but a kind word is 
never thrown away. 

3. A great writer has said that grace is beauty in action : I say 
that justice is truth in action. 

4. How easy it is for one benevolent being to diffuse pleasure 
around him ; and how truly is a kind heart a fountain of gladness, 
making everything in its vicinity freshen into smiles. 

5. If we do not plant knowledge when young, it will give us no 
shade when we are old. 

6. To know by rote is no knowledge ; it is only a retention of what 
is intrusted to the memory. What a man truly knows may be dis- 
posed of without regard to the author, or reference to the book 
whence he had it. 

7. Alexander the Great, reflecting on his friends' degenerating into 
sloth and luxury, told them that it was a most slavish thing to 
luxuriate, and a most royal thing to labor. 

8. Oh, what a glory doth this world put on for him who, with a 
fervent heart, goes forth under the bright and glorious sky! 

9. Few men learn the highest use of books. After life-long study 
many a man discovers too late that to have had the philosopher's 
stone availed nothing without the philosopher to use it. 

10. If the poor and humble toil that we may have food, must not 
the high and glorious toil for him in return, that he have light, guid- 
ance, freedom, immortality. 

11. Words are the leaves of the tree of knowledge, of which, if 
some fall away, a new succession takes their place. 

12. The busy world shoves angrily aside 

The man who stands with arms akimbo set, 
Until the occasion tells him what to do ; 
And he who waits to have his task marked out 
Shall die and leave his errand unfulfilled. 

1 To the Teacher. — Other sentences for analysis and parsing may be found on pages 
10, 11, 74, 75, 76. All school readers of course furnish abundant and varied material for 
practice. 



300 PHBASES, CLAUSES, ETC. 

13. Failure after long perseverance is much grander than never to 
have a striving good enough to be called a failure. 

14. When the Breton sailor puts to sea, his prayer is, " Keep me, 
my God, for my boat is so small and Thy ocean is so wide." 

15. 'Tis greatly wise to talk with our past hours, 
And ask them what report they bore to heaven. 

16. The happiest man is he who, being above the troubles which 
money brings, has his hands the fullest of work. 

17. It is seldom that we find how great a man is until he dies. 

18. Nine times out of ten, the best thing that can happen to a 
young man is to be tossed overboard and compelled to sink or swim 
for himself. In all my acquaintance I never knew a man to be 
drowned who was worth the saving. 

19. If the way in which men express their thoughts is slipshod 
and mean, it will be very difficult for their thoughts themselves to 
escape being the same. 

20. Learn from the earliest days to inure your principles against 
the perils of ridicule ; you can no more exercise your reason, if you 
live in the constant dread of laughter, than you can enjoy your life 
if you are in the constant terror of death. 

21. Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, onward through life he goes ; 
Each morning sees some task begin, each evening sees its close; 
Something attempted, something done, has earned a night's 

repose. 

22. For manhood is the one immortal thing 

Beneath Time's changeful sky, 
And, where it lightened once, from age to age, 
Men come to learn, in grateful pilgrimage, 

That length of days is knowing when to die. 

23. Press on ! surmount the rocky steeps ; 

Climb boldly o'er the torrent's arch : 
He fails alone who feebly creeps ; 

He vrins who dares the hero's march. 
Be thou a hero ! let thy might 

Tramp on eternal snows its way, 
And through the ebon w r alls of night, 

Hew down a passage unto day. 



INDEX. 



[The numbers refer to sections.] 



A or an, 393, 1 ft; use, 412-3. 

A few, etc., construction, 415. 

Abbreviated expressions, 589-92. 

Absolute construction, 311-12, 616. 

Abstract nouns, 271. 

Active voice, 499, 503. 

Active participle, 610, 612. 

Adjectives, 156-65, 307-421; kinds, 159, etc., 
393,411; conjunctive,'393,IV; descriptive, 
388-91; interrogative, 393, III; limiting, 
160, etc., 392-3; numeral, 393, II; parti- 
cipial, 391; possessive, 351 ft; predicate, 
159 (1), 407; proper, 391; -verbal, 453-5, 
459-63. 

Comparison, 394-403, 417; substitute 
for, 400; adjs. not compared, 401, 403, 417; 

— number, 404. 

Constructions, 159, 221, 405-S; apposi- 
tive, 406; attributive, 406; complement, 
subjective, 407 ; objective, 408; independ- 
ent, 590 (3); as pronouns, 345; — modi- 
fiers of, 241, 621; —parsing, 409, 411; 

— position, 250; — errors in form, 412- 
20; — in use, 421, 555; — summary, 
411. 

Adjective clause, 332, 334, 538-9; construc- 
tion, 623 (1). 

Adjective phrase, 224, 415, 561 a. 

Adjective pronouns, 345-8, 362a. 

Adverbs, 166-70, 536-52; kinds, 536-49, 
554; conjunctive, 537-43; interrogative, 
545; modal, 546; responsives, 547; sim- 
ple, 537, 544. 
Comparison, 550-1. 

Constructions, 166-72, 222, 552, 554; 
modify what, 552; independent, 590 (4); 
as conjunctions, 572 a; — modifiers of, 
241, 621; — parsing, 553-4; —position, 558; 

— errors in use, etc., 555-8; — summary, 
554. 

Adverb-clause, 542, 579; construction, 

623 (2). 
Adverb-phrase, 224, 562 a. 
Agreement, 452; adjectives, 414; verbs, 

523-35. 
Analysis, 242-50, 507; general directions, 



319, 624; marking, p. 79, 246-7; models, 

244-5; complex sentence, 365-7, 553. 
And for to, 607. 

Antecedents, 336; agreement, 371; collec- 
tive, 375; connected, 372-3. 
Anticipative subject, 363, 598 a. 
Apostrophe, 293; misused, 362 6. 
Appositive, 235-7; adjective, 406 6; case of, 

380; noun or pronoun, 296 (5) ; participle, 

615; phrase, 238-40. 
Appositive adjective clause, 385. 
Arrangement, see Order. 
Articles, 393, I; form, 412; repeated, 439. 
As, conjunction, 579; conj. adverb, p. 280; 

relative pronoun, 338. 
Assertive sentence, 113, 120. 
Attributive adjective, 406 a. 
Auxiliaries, 477-8; be, 495-6; do, 597-8; 

have, 489-94; may, can, must, 483-8; 

shall, will, 479-82; choice between, 515- 

19; should, 487, 519; meaning of, 479, 

483-7. 
Base of sentence, 216-8, 619. 
Be, complete or copulative, 426. 
Biographical sketches, 76. 
Capitals, 9, 119, 257. 
Case, 353; nouns, 291-4; possessive, 231-4; 

pronouns, 351-6; wrong forms, 376-82. 
Choice of words, p. 60. 
Clause, def.,333; kinds, 623; adjective, 334, 

538-9; appositive and restrictive, 385; 

adverb, 541-2, 577-81; noun, 339, 341, 540, 

580. 
Constructions, 623; as modifier, 620-1; 

as part of base, 619. 
Clause, connective, 335, 537, 578. 
Collective nouns, 266-7; as antecedents, 

375; as subjects, 526-8. 
Comparison, 396; adjectives, 394-403; ad- 
verbs, 549-50; errors in, 417-9; irregular, 

488, 550 a. 
Complement, 213-5, 214 ft, 200-11: of inf. 

and part., 407 a; objective, 313-16, 408; 

subjective, 296, 614; cace of, 376; after 

to be, 382; inf. as, 598. 
Complete verbs, 211-12. 



INDEX. 



Complex sentence, 365; analysis, 367; 
punctuation, 386, 585. 

Compound elements, 622. 

Compound nouns; gender, 263; plural 2S5; 
possessive, 293, note, 3. 

Compound sentence, 183-8, 571, 619-21; 
analysis, 244; punctuation, 576. 

Compound complex sentence, 366. 

Conjugation, 464, etc. 

Conjugation tables, p. 24S-9; be, 407. 

Conjunctions, 183-92, 569-87; auxiliary. ',".:,, 
note; co-ordinating, 570-4; correlative, 
575; subordinating, 577-81. 

Use, 183, etc., 199, 586; compound ele- 
ments, 190, 622; — parsing, 583-4; — er- 
rors, 587; — summary, 586. 

Conjunctive adjective, 382, IV; adverb, 
537-43; pronouns, 335-8. 

Connectives, 569, 623. 

Construction, absolute, 311-2, 616; adjec- 
tives, 405-8; adverbs, 552-4; clauses, 023; 
conjunctions, 586; independent, 310, 
590-2; infinitive, 59S-602: interjection, 
588, 591; nouns, 296-316, 324; participle . 
614-6; phrases, 561-3; prepositions, 560, 
566; pronouns, 359-64; verbs, 508. 

Contractions, 152. 

Copulative verb, 201-05, 213, 424-6. 

Copying, p. 10. 

Correction of compositions, 25. 

Correlatives, 575. 

Dare, 451, 603 a. 

Declension, 354. 

Demonstrative, adjective, 393, VI ; pronoun, 
347. 

Descriptive adjective, 156-8, 163; 388-91. 

Descriptive writing, 81; directions, 82; 
comparison and contrast, 83; geograph- 
ical, 84; of natural products, 85; of artifi- 
cial products, 85; processes, 87; animals, 
88; plants, 89; persons, 91. 

Dictation Exercises, p. 10. 

Distributive, adjective, 393, VII ; pronoun, 
347. 

Each other, misused, 387. 

Elements, compound, 190, 622; independ- 
ent, 310; order, 248, etc. 

Elliptical construction, 591. 

Emphatic verb-phrase, 497-8, p. 249. 

Errors; adjectives, 412-21; adverbs, 555-8; 
infinitives, 605-8; conjunctions, 587; po6- 
sessives, 297-300; prepositions, 567-8; 
pronouns, 371-87, 338, 362 6 ; verbs, 509-35 ; 
in words, forms of, 92; unnecessary, 93; 
confounded, 95; in choice of, 95; in order 
of, 97; double meaning of, 98. 

Essential subject and predicate, 133-5, 150, 
156, 216, 219, 423. 

Exaggerations, 96. 

Exclamation, 116, 117, 122; words used in, 
310 (2), 588-93. 

Expansion, of words, 299; of phrases, 602, 
615. 

Expletive, 249, 363, 549. 

False syntax, see. Errors. 



Feminine nouns, 259-64; pronouns, 357. 

Future tense, 479- 12. 

Future perfect tense, 491. 

Gender-nouns, 258-65; common, 204: 
pronouns, 357-8. 

Grammar, def., 7. 

Historical sketches, 78; outlines, 79-80. 

Imperative sentence, 120, 171; mood, 
443; subject omitted, 446, 619a. 

Imperfect participle, 460, 610, 612. 

Incomplete verbs, 200, 423-5. 

Independent construction, 310, 590-2. 

Indicative, 444, 446-7. 

Indirect object, 302-6. 

Indirect predicate, 602-3; case after, 382. 

Infinitive, 454-8, 594, 594-604; kinds 
595; without to, 603. 

Constructions, 508-602; as abstract 
nouu,270 (2) ; as adjective, 600; asadverb, 
601; as indirect predicate, 602; as object, 
598; as object of prep., 599; as subject. 
598; as predicate adj., 600 a ; with anti- 
cipative it, 598 a ; with predicate adjective, 
407 a; with object, 455 (1) ; — modifiers 
of, 621; — parsing, 604; — errors, • 
— summary, 604. 

Inflection, 229, etc., 272, etc.; adjective, 394- 
404; adverb, 550-1; noun, 272, etc.; pro- 
noun, 349-57; verb, 430, etc. 

Interjections, 193-8, 16, 588-93; kinds, 
589; responsives, 547; uses, 193-7, 199. 

Interrogative, adjective, 393, III; adverb, 
545. 

Pronoun, 330-1; antecedent, 360; con- 
structions, 359-60. 

Interrogative sentence, 114, 498; order, 
249 b; punctuation, 121. 

Intransitive verbs, 425; as transitive, 428; 
made passive, 504. 

Inverted order, 248, etc.; with there, 549. 

Irregular comparison, 398, 550a; plurals, 
277-83. 

Irregular verbs, 470-4; conjugation, 467, 
469. 

It, anticipative subject, 363, 249 end, 598 a; 
used indefinite!}-, 304. 

Italics, 10. 

Language, study of, 3; use of, 1. 

Letters, figures, etc.; plural, 276. 

Letter- writing, 26-73; address, 40-6; body 
of letter, 48-52; complimentary ending, 
58-61; exercises, p. 31; forms, 28, 73; 
folding, 65-6; heading, 29-34; kinds, 27; 
notes of invitation, p. 30; salutation. 47- 
52; signature, 62-4; superscription, 67-72. 

Limiting adjective, 100-4; 392-3; as pro- 
noun, 345-8. 

Marking for analysis, p. 138, footnote ; 
240-7, 307, p. 198-9. 

Masculine, nouns, 259-64; pronouns, 357. 

Modifiers, 220-41, 020-1; of verbals, 455; 
primary and secondary, 228 a; inverted 
order, 250. 

Members of sentence, 183. 

Mood, 441-8. 



Narrative-writing, 74; directions for, 75. 

Need, 451, 603 a. 

Negative sentence, 498. 

Negatives, errors in use, 557. 

Nominative, 352; use, 376, 381. 

Nouns, 136, 138-42, 251-99; def., 140; kinds, 
139,251-71, 324; abstract, 268-71; kinds, 
270, meaning, 268-3; collective, 267-8; 
common, 252, etc., meaning, 254; gender, 
258-65 ; proper, 251-7, meaning, 254 ; 
verbal, 453-8, 463. 

Forms or inflection, 272-95; case, 291-5; 
possessive, 292-3; number, 273-90; pecu- 
liarities of, 287-90; plural, rules for, 275- 
286, of compounds, 285, of foreign words, 
286. 

Constructions or uses, 296-316, 324, 199, 
141 ; adverbially, 307-9 ; as appositive, 235, 
etc., 296; as complement, 204; as objec- 
tive complement, 313-16; as subjective 
complement, 296; independently, 310, 
590 (1) ; as indirect object, 302-6; as 
possessive, 231-4, 296; as object of prep., 
296, of verb, 296; as subject, 296 (1) ; with 
participle, 311-2, 616; modifiers of, 241, 
621; —parsing, 322-3; — summary, 324. 

Noun-clause, 339-42; connective, 340, 540, 
580; construction, 623 (3); equivalents, 
602. 

Noun-phrases, as adverbs, 308; possessive 
of, 293, note 3. 

Notes of invitation, p. 30. 

Number, nouns, 273-90, 229; adjectives, 
404; pronouns, 349-50, errors, 371-5; 
proper nouns, 284; special rules, 277-83 ; 
verbs, 449-52, errors, 524-35. 

Numerals, 394, II. 

Objective pronouns, 351-3. 

Objective complement, 313-16, 408, 429. 

Object, of verbs, 210, 214; of inf., 455 (1) ; 
of part., 455 (2) ; of preposition, 180, 560; 
direct, indirect, 303; in passive, 503, 306; 
infinitive as object, 598; wrong case-form, 

One another, misused, 387. 

Other, misused, 420. 

Order of words, inverted, 248, etc. ; wrong, 
97; adverbial expressions, 558; prep, and 
object, 560 a; questions, 360, 446; there, 
549; to. 605. 

Paragraphs, 19. 

Paraphrasing, 102. 

Parsing, 317-21, 624; adjectives, 409; ad- 
verbs, 553; conjunctions, 583; infinitives, 
604; nouns, 322-3; order, 320; participle, 
618; prepositions, 566-7; pronouns, 36S; 
verbs, 506-8. 

Participial adjective, 391. 

Participles, 459-62, 609-18; imperfect, 460, 
612; perfect, 461, 613. 

Constructions, 614-18; absolutely, 311- 
12; as adjectives, 614; as adverb, 614 a; 
as appositive, 615; equivalent to clause, 
616; in perfect phrase, 489-94; with com- 
plement, 407 a; — modifiers, 455 (2), 621; 



— parsing, 618;— suffix, 612-13; — sum- 
mary, 618. 

Participle-phrase, 310, 311, 611; p. 249. 

Parts of speech, 199 ; decided by use, 155. 

Passive participle, 610 (2), 613. 

Passive phrase, 499-504; formation, 501; 
from intransitives, 506; with complement, 
296 (2) ; when used, 503. 

Past perfect, 490. 

Past tense, 436; formation, 438; misused, 
511; past subjunctive, 522. 

Perfect infinitive for present, 608. 

Perfect participle, 461, 610, 613; misused, 
511. 

Perfect tense phrases, 489-94. 

Person, of pronouns, 326-9; of verbs, 449- 
452, 532, 535. 

Personification, 358. 

Phrases, 151, 154, 111, 173-4; emphatic, 
497-8; infinitive, 596; participle, 611; pas- 
sive, 499-504; perfect, 489-94; possessive, 
238; prepositional, 561-3; progressive, 
495-6; verb, 493-508. 

As adjectives and adverbs, 223, etc., 
561-2; as appositives, 238-9; equivalent 
to clause, 312; independent, 590 (4); as 
part of base, 619 (4) ; as subjective com- 
plement, 226. 
Analysis, 245, 502-7. 

Phrase-adverbs, 548. 

Phrase-conjunctions, 582. 

Phrase-prepositions, 564. 

Plural, 229-30, 274; of name with title, 284. 

Poetry, transformation of, 104; differs from 
prose, 104. 

Position of words, see Order. 

Possessive, 234; as adjective, 231, etc., 354 b, 
393, V ; connected nouns, 297-8 ; formation 
of, 293, '.233; meaning, 294-5; nouns, 296; 
phrase, 238; phrase preferred, 294, 299- 
300, 356; pronouns, 354-5; double form, 
361-2; with modifiers, 239; without noun, 
301. 

Potential forms, 483-8. 

Predicate, 127-9; essential, 135; indirect, 
602; modified, 132, 157. 

Predicate-adjective, 159 (1) ; infinitive as, 
600 a; construction, 407. 

Predicate-noun, 203-4; construction, 296. 

Preposition, 173-82, 559-68; use, 176-7, 199. 
569 (3); after its object, 560 a; as adverb, 
565; as conjunction, 565; combined with 
verb, 504; independent, 590 (4); witlf 
infinitive, 599; — parsing, 566; — errors. 
567-8. 

Prepositional phrase, 173-4, 561-3; use, 226: 
as adjective, 177, 561 ; as adverb, 176, 182, 
562 ; for possessive, 294, 299-300, 356 ; witfr 
modifiers, 227-8. 

Present perfect, 489. 

Present participle, 610, 612. 

Present tense, 433-5; potential, 484; sub- 
junctive, 521. 

Principal parts, 472; list, 474; of auxiliaries. 
478; alike, 439; confused, 510-11. 



INDEX. 



Progressive verb-phrase, 495-6. 

Proper, adjective, 391; — nouns, 252-7, 
plural, 284. 

Pronouns, 143-8, 325-87; kinds, 326-48, 369; 
adjective, 345-8; appositive, 296 (5) ; con- 
junctive, 332-44; compound personal, 328; 
demonstrative, 347; distributive, 347; in- 
terrogative, 330-1, 146; as connective, 344 b, 
antecedent of, 331, 360; personal, 326-9; 
possessive, 231-3, 361-2; relative, 335-8, 
meaning, 338. 

Forms or inflection, 369; agreement, 
371; with collective antecedent, 375; with 
connected antecedents, 371-5; case, 351-6, 
of appositive, 380; independent, or with 
participle, 381; gender, 357-8,374; num- 
ber, 349-50. 

Constructions, 359-64, 324; as adjec- 
tives, 361-2; with participle, 381, 616; 
choice of, 384-6; — meaning, 143-8, 325; 
modifiers, 241, 620; — parsing, 368; —er- 
rors in use of, 371-87, 362 &; wrong case- 
forms, 376-82 ; as subject, 377-8, as object, 
379 ; wrong number-forms, 371-5 ; — sum- 
mary, 369. 

Punctuation, 8, 11-17; of series, 165, 192; 
of compound sentence, 189, 576; of com- 
plex sent., 386. 404; comma, 165, 189, 192, 
240, 386, 585, 617; colon and semicolon, 
576, 21; period, 120; question mark, 122; 
exclamation point, 122, 198, 593. 

Quotation, 20-3; as part of base, 019, 6. 

Regular verbs, 479-1. 

Relative pronoun, 335-8; construction, 359. 

Responsives, 547. 

Sentence, 108-16; kinds, 113-15, 1S7-S, 
365-6; base of, 216, 218,619; compound, 
183-9, 619-24; complex, 365, 619-24; com- 
pound complex, 366; interrogative and 
negative, 498; simple, 187; structure, 
131-5, 201, etc. 

Sentence-analysis, 242, etc. 

Sentence-building, 200, etc. 

S-form of verbs, 449-51; errors in using, 
524-35; spelling of, 466. 

Shall, will, 479-82; errors, 515-19. 

Simple sentence, 187; analysis, 244. 

Spelling, plurals, 277-82; verbs, 466. 

Story-writing, p. 12. 

Subject, 123-6; affirmative and negative, 
534; anticipative, 363; collective, 526-8; 
connected, 529-34; essential, 135, 142; 
indefinite, 364 ; infinitive as, 598 ; inverted 
order, 249; modified, 132, 157; nouns as, 
296 (1) ; omitted, 619 a, 446; pronouns as, 
376-8; third singular, 524; thou, 451 a ; 
wrong case-form, 377-8. 

Subjective complement, 213; infinitive as, 
598; phrase, 226, 619; position, 360. 

Subjunctive, 445-7; forms, 520; use, 521-2. 

Summary, see each part of speech. 



Synonyms, 99-100; exercises in pp. 67-72. 

Syntax, see Constructions. 

Tenses, 431-40, 508; errors, 511, 608; names, 
494; special meaning, 434, 437. 

Tense-phrases, future, 479-82; perfect, 
489-94. 

That, adjective pronoun, 346-7; conjunc- 
tion, 580; plural, 404; relative pronoun, 
338; when used, 474. 

There, 249, 549. 

Titles, plural of, 284. 

To, with infinitive, alone, 606; omitted, 603; 
position, 605. 

Transitive verbs, 206-ln, 214, 424-5; used 
intransitively, 208, 427 ; with objective 
complement, 313-16, 408; with two ob- 
jects, 303. 

Transposition, 160, 105. See Order. 

Use, see Construction. 

Verbal adjectives, 453-5, 159-68, p. 249, 
609-18. 

Verbal nouns, 270 (2) ; infinitives, 453-8, p. 
249, 594-608, 463. 

Verbs, 153, 13G, 149-54, 422-535; kinds, 42:;, 
etc.; complete, 157,423; copulative, 201 -5; 
424-6; incomplete, 156, 20U; transitive, 
206-10, 214, as intransitive, 427. 

Inflection, 430, etc., 465; combined with 
prepositions, 504; conjugation, 464-505, 
new and old, p. 235, note; 589, IV; 
double forms, 473; emphatic phrase, 
497-8; infinitive, 594, etc.; mood, 441-s; 
number and person, 44'.>-502; participle*, 
609, etc.; passive phrase, 499-504; perfect 
tenses, 489-94; potential phrase, 483-8; 
principal parts, 472; progressive phrase, 
495; regular and irregular, 471-2; list of, 
p. 236; solemn forms, 451, 465 (6), 47^ re 
spelling, 466; subjunctive, 520; tense, 
431-411, 508. 

Construction, 216-18, 508; agreement, 
450-1, 523-35; as other parts of speech, 
454; with collective subject, 526-8; with 
connected subjects, 529-34; independent, 
590 (2); with complement, 213-1.'.; with 
objective complement, 408; —modifiers, 
621; — parsing, 506-8; —errors in form. 
509-35; with relative as subject, 535; shall 
and will, 515-19; in subjunctive forms, 
520; — verbs omitted, 533. 

Verb-phrase, 154. 151, 475-505; formation, 
476; emphatic, 497; future, 479; passive, 
500; perfect, 459; potential, 483; sepa- 
rated, 481 ; progressive, 495. 

Vocative, 310 (1). 

Voice, 499, 503. 

What, 339-40. 

Will for shall, 515-19. 

Words, choice of, 107, 92-101; kinds, 136, 
etc.; use, 9, 100, 136. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



003 237 926 6 




